Bm 



888 



i 



"■:': 



:■■;■ 



111 

.'''■' 

ma 



fBRsSk 



2fiSMKa«ra3jBflflHflSfl88aB^^ 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Cliap.___:_l Copyright No,.. 
Shelf.„B.7-3 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



A LABORATORY MANUAL 



ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY 



AN 



INDUCTIVE STUDY IN ANIMAL AND PLANT MORPHOLOGY 



DESIGNED FOR PREPARATORY AND HIGH SCHOOLS 



EMANUEL R. BOYER, A. B. 

INSTRUCTOR IN BIOLOGY, ENGLEWOOD HIGH SCHOOL. LECTURER IN 
BIOLOGY, EXTENSION DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 




BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1896 



Copyright, 1894 
By D. C. HEATH & CO, 






^ 



PREFACE. 



It is important that the pupil should find included in his 
high school or preparatory course a line of work which 
embraces the stud}' of natural objects and phenomena. Such 
are the so-called science studies, provided they are really 
studies of the objects instead of books. But in these studies 
the voung beginner must be guided and directed, in order that 
his observations and inferences may be comprehensive, sys- 
tematic and accurate ; hence the laboratory manual is an abso- 
lute necessity where the teacher is to direct a class of any con- 
siderable number of pupils in practical work. 

This book is the outgrowth of several years' experience in 
an effort to place the subjects of elementary zoologv and 
botany upon a strictly laboratory basis in preparatory and 
high schools, and to combine the study of animals and plants 
as parts of one subject, Biology. It has been my effort to 
make the laboratory studies as strictly inductive as I could, 
bearing in mind the condition of the average young student, 
viz., his comparative ignorance of the subject-matter, and his 
limited experience in continuous and systematic observation, 
and in faithful, accurate description of what he sees. 

To Prof. S. A. Forbes, University of Illinois, Prof. C. O. 
Whitman, University of Chicago, President J. M. Coulter, Lake 
Forest University, Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska. 



iv PREFACE. 

Prof. B. P. Colton, Illinois State Normal. Supt. G. W. Peckham, 
Milwaukee Public Schools, and to Dr. A. F. Nightingale, 
Superintendent of the High Schools of Chicago, I wish here 
to express my sincere thanks for their encouragement and val- 
uable suggestions. 

I am much indebted to the teachers of biology in the 
Chicago High Schools for their cordial cooperation, and 
especially to those who have kindly assisted in reading the 
proof. 

Unavoidably the book has been hurried in its progress 
through the press and will not therefore be as free from error 
as could ordinarily be expected, and I respectfully request 
the forbearance of teachers of biology and educational friends. 

E. R. B. 

Chicago, February, 1S94. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Introduction, - - - - - - - - xi 

Preliminary Exercises, ------ xiv 



PART I. 
Animal Types, ..__..-_- j 

STUDY I. 
A Study of an Amceba, . - - - - - i 

. Laboratory Work, I 

General Appearance and Structure, i 

Concerning Organs and Functions, - 2 

Other Work, - - - = - - 3 

STUDY II. 
A Study of a Fresh-Water Sponge, ^ = - - 4 

Laboratory Work, - - . - - - - 4 

Gross and Minute Structure, 4 

Other Work, ----_. 5 

STUDY III. 

A Study of a Fresh-Water Hydra, - - - - 6 

Laboratory Work, ------ 6 

General External Characters, - 6 

Internal Structure, • - - 7 

Other Work, . - . _ . . . g 

STUDY IV. 

A Study of a Star-Fish, - - - - - - 10 

Laboratory Work, - - - - - .. I0 

General Form and Topography, - IO 

Structures of the Aboral Surfa • . n 

Structures of the Oral Surface, ... 12 

Body Cavity, .... - - 13 

Other Work, - - - - - - - 16 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



STUDY V. 

A Study of an Earthworm, 

Laboratory Work, ... 

Observations on the Living Worm, 

General Topography and External Characters, 

Gross Anatomy, - 

Minute Anatomy, 
Other Work, .... 

STUDY VI. 
A Study of a Crayfish, 

Laboratory Work, 

Observations on the Living Crayfish, - 
The General Form and Regions of the Body, 
The Thoracic and Abdominal Appendages, 
Cephalic Appendages, — Oral and Tactile, - 
The Gills and the Gill -chamber, 
The Heart and the Blood-vessels, - 
The Alimentary Canal, - 

The Central Nerve Cord, 

Other Work, - - 

STUDY VII. 
A Study of a Grasshopper, 
Laboratory Work, 

General Appearance and Topography of the Body, 

The Head and its Appendages, 

The Thorax and its Appendages, - 

The Abdomen and its Parts, - 

Circulatory and Reproductive Organs, 

The Digestive Organs, 
Other Work, 

STUDY VIII. 

A Study of a Fresh-water Mussel, 
Laboratory Work, - 

The Topography and general Form of the Shell, 

The outer Surface of the Shell, 

The inner Surface of the Shell, 

The Structure and Composition of the Shell, 

External appearance of the Body in the opened Shell, 

The Organs lying in the Pallial Cavity, 

The Circulatory System, 

The Alimentary Canal, « - - ■ 

Other Work, - _ . 



PAGE. 

17 
17 



17 



34 
35 
36 
38 
39 
40 



43 
43 
44 
45 
45 
46 
48 
49 



23 



- 


24 




24 


24 




- 25 




26 




- 27 




28 




• 2 9 




31 




* 32 





34 
34 



4i 



42 
43 



5i 



CONTENTS. 



STUDY IX. 

A .Study of a River Perch, 
Laboratory Work, 

The general Form of the Body, 
The Appendages, - 
The Eyes, - - 

The Nostrils, 
The Mouth, ■ - 
The Gill -covers, - 
The Gills, - 

The Scales, ... 

The Body Cavities, 
The Digestive Organs, 
- The Reproductive and Excretory Organs, 
The Organs of Circulation and Respiration, 
The Central Nervous System, 
The Endoskeleton of the Perch, 

Other Work, - - - 



PAGE. 

53 

53 



53 
54 
56 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
60 
61 
63 
64 
65 
67 



67 



STUDY X. 



A Study of a Frog, 
Laboratory Work, - 

Observations on the Living Frog, 

General Form and Regions of the Body. 

The Head, 

The Limbs. 

The Axial Skeleton, 

The Appendicular Skeleton, - 

The Body -wall and Muscles, 

Digestive Organs, - 

The Reproductive and Excretory System, 

The Respiratory Organs, 

The Organs of Circulation, 

The Central Nervous Axis, 

The Brain, 

The Cranial Nerves, 

Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves, 

The Blood and Blood Vessels, 

Tissues of the Organs of Digestion, 

The Minute Structure of the Kidneys, 

Nervous Tissue 



09 
70 



70 
7i 

7i 
72 

73 
75 
77 
78 
79 
80 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
86 

87 



Other Work. 



89 



viii CONTENTS. 

STUDY XL 

PAGE. 

A Study of a Turtle, - - - - - - 90 

Laboratory Work, ------ 90 

Observations on the Living Turtle, - - - 90 

The Exoskeleton, - - - *. • • 91 

The Axial Endoskeleton, - - - - 92 

The Appendicular Endoskeleton 93 

The Respiratory Organs, - - * - 94 

The Digestive Organs, ... • 95 

The L T rinogenital System, - - - - 94 

The Circulatory System ... ' ~ 95 

Other Work, - - - • - - . 97 

STUDY XII. 
A Study of a Pigeon, - 
Laboratorv Work. - 

General Observations, -.-..- 

The Axial Skeleton, • 

The Appendicular Skeleton, - % 

General External Characteristics, - 
The Exoskeleton — Feathers and Horny Scales, - 
Other Work, - 

STUDY XIII. 
A Study of a Cat, ... 

Laboratorv Work, - 

Observations on the Living Cat, - 

The General Framework of the Cat, 
Observations on the Skull and Teeth, 
Other Work, ..... 



- 


98 


- 


98 


98 




99 




102 




104 




105 






107 


m 


108 




108 


108 




no 




in 




- 


112 



PART II. 
Plant Types, - - - - - - • ^115 

STUDY I. 
A Study of Green Sltme and the Yeast Plant, - - 117 

Laboratory Work, - - - - IX 7 

The Morphology of Protococcus, .... 117 

Minute Structure and the Effect of Reagents, - 118 

Morphology of the Yeast Plant, .... 118 

Minute Structure and the Effect of Reagents, - * - 119 

Other Work, ----- - 120 



CONTENTS. ix 

STUDY II. 
A Study of a Brook-silk, - - - • - 121 

Laboratory Work, - - - - - 122 

General characters and gross Morphology of Spirogyra in its Vegetative 

Condition, - - - - - 122 

Minute Anatomy of the Vegetative Filament, - - 122 

Morphology of the Fruiting Filaments, • - - 123 

Other Work, - - - - - - 124 

STUDY III. 

A Study of a Green Felt, - - - - - 125 

Laboratory Work, - - - - - 125 

General characters and gross Morphology, - - 125 

Minute Anatomy, ... - I2 6 

Other Work, - - - - - - 127 

STUDY IV. 

A Study of a Stonewort, - - - - - - 128 

Laboratory Work, - - - - - -129 

Gross Morphology of the Thallus, .... T2 g 

Minute Anatomy of the Thallus, ----- 130 

Morphology of the Gonads, ----- 131 

Other Work, - ----- 133 

STUDY V. 

A Study of a Liverwort, - - - - - - 134 

Laboratory Work, - - - - - .135 

Gross Morphology of the Thallus, - 135 

Minute Structure of the Thallus, ----- I3 6 

Morphology of the Fruiting Branches, • - - 137 

. Morphology of the Gemma, - - 138 

Other Work, - - - - - - 139 

STUDY VI. 

A Study of a Common Fern, - - - - - 14. 

Laboratory Work, - - - - - - 141 

General Morphology of the Fern-plant (Sporophore), - - 141 

Morphology of the Rhizome, - - - - 142 

Morphology of the Fertile Fronds, - - - - 144 

Morphology of the Prothallium (Oophore, :. - - - 145 

Other Work, - - - - - - - 140 



X CONTEXTS. 

STUDY VII. 

PAGE. 

A Study of a Scotch Pine, - - - . - - 147 

Laboratory Work, ---.... z ^g 

General Morphology of the Scotch Pine, - - - x ^8 

Morphology of the Foliage Leaf, - I4 g 

Morphology of a Young Branch, - - - - 150 

Morphology of the Staminate or Male Branch, - 15T 

Morphology of the Pistillate or Female Branch, - - 152 

Other Work, - - - - - - - 154 

STUDY VIII. 

A Study of a Trillium, - - - - - - 155 

Laboratory Work, - - - - _ . 155 

General Morphology of Trillium, .... 155 

Structure of the Stem and Aerial Branch, - j$6 

Form and Structure of the Foliage Leaf, - - j^ 7 
The Flower, ----«_. j^8 

Other Work, - - - - - - 161 

STUDY IX. 

A Study of Seeds and Seedlings, - - - - 162 

Laboratory Work, - - - - _ -163 

External Morphology of Seeds, ----- ^^ 

Morphology of the Embryo, - 163 

Morphology of Seedlings, - 165 

Other Work, - 166 



PART III. 
Classification of Animal^ and Plants, ... 167 

Classification of Animals, - • -.69 

Classification of Plants, - - 17? 

Artificial Key, - . - - - - 175 

Key to the Orders, - - - - - " *75 

Key to the Genera and Species, ----- ij^ 

Special Glossary, --.... !8i 

Laboratory Equipment and Technique, - - - 194 

Works of Reference, ...--. 203 

Index and Derivations, - - - - 210 



INTRODUCTION. 



In arranging this Manual the author has attempted pri- 
marily to meet the demand of those high schools and prepar- 
atory institutions which desire to combine the subjects of 
zoology and botany into a continuous one-year study, and 
make laboratory work the basis. It has been the aim to 
arrange a series of studies which will give the pupil, through 
his own observations, a knowledge of the leading charac- 
teristics of the chief branches of animals and plants. In 
its nature the laboratory work consists almost entirely of 
morphology, and comparatively little actual dissection is 
required of the pupil ; hence the course is more truly one 
in animal and plant morphology than biology in the broader 
sense. 

The method of instruction is inductive and rests upon the 
individual observation of the pupil. The aim is to develop 
rather than inform ; hence the laboratory method of studv is 
more important than the information involved. Accuracy in 
observation is a prerequisite to accuracy and clearness in 
description or statement, as well as to logical inference or con- 
clusion. 

Each pupil should be provided with both material for studv, 
and a copy of the Manual to direct him. The class being 
so provided, the instructor is free to render such individual 



xii INTRODUCTION. 

assistance as may be necessary in the technique and execu- 
tion of the work. The pupil studies the material as directed 
in the Manual, and notes the facts of his observations 
and the conclusions drawn from them His notes, illus- 
trated by numerous sketches, of the structures studied, are 
subsequently to be cast into clear, concise, and connected 
statements, constituting a description of the plant or animal 
under consideration. 

Careful drawings may also be made upon a standard draw- 
ing paper, the aim of which is to represent a summary of the 
principal structural characteristics of the type studied. The 
sketches and drawings should be diagrammatic, clear and dis- 
tinct in outline, without any attempt to represent light and 
shade or to produce artistic effect. 

The material required in this course is of mere nominal 
expense, but requires some time in its preparation. Any 
instructor acquainted with modern methods of laboratory 
technique can, by the aid of some of his pupils, make the 
necessary permanent preparations in course of one or two 
terms, and when once accumulated, the preparations may be 
kept from year to year. It is not necessary that all the material 
enumerated should be provided before introducing this 
course. 

When a technical term is introduced for the first time it 
appears in full-face type and stands in a sentence embodying 
its definition. The Index contains the derivation of all such 
terms. The literal meaning of the technical terms, if associated 
with their present or special meaning, will aid the pupil in 



INTRODUCTION. xiii 

understanding the force and propriety of their application, as 
well as aid his memory in retaining them. 

The synopses of classification and the artificial key arranged 
for a few typical plants will afford some practical work in 
" plant analyses," and will also aid in impressing the pupil 
with the natural affinity and unity in the world of living 
beings. 

The references at the close of each Study refer to the Works 
of Reference on page 203. In order to economize space and 
avoid many repetitions of titles, the references are made by 
numerals. 



PRELIMINARY EXERCISE. 



Remark. — A preliminary exercise on the manipulation and use 
of the microscope is necessary to successful work with beginners 
in this course. It should not fail to precede the practical use of 
the microscope. Owing to its compactness and simplicity, the 
pattern known as the " Continental Stand " is to be preferred for 
beginners in an elementary course.* The following introductory 
exercise will, however, apply almost equally well to other forms of 
stand. The instructor should see that all accessories not recog 
nized in the exercise are removed from the stand and that the eye- 
piece and objective are not in the tube at the time of beginning 
the exercise. 

THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 

(a) Observe the general appearance and construction of the 

body (stand) of the microscope. Note the part (base) 
which rests on the table. What is its shape ? Examine 
the vertical part (column), which is attached to the base 
and gives support to the other parts. In some micro- 
scopes the column is provided with a hinge a short dis- 
tance above the base, which allows the column to turn 
back in an oblique position. Do you find such a hinge 
in this microscope? 

(b) Observe the horizontal shelf-like part (stage) attached to 

the column. The use of the stage is to support the 
object or preparation while it is being studied with the 
microscope. Note the circular opening (eye) through 
the central part of the stage. The use of the eye is to 
allow light to pass up through the stage. 

* See note on page 194. 

xiv 



THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. XV 

(c) Tip the microscope to one side, and examine the lower 

surface of the stage. Do you find any device (dia- 
phragm), possibly a rotary disc, attached to the stage? 
Observe the series of openings in the diaphragm, and 
rotate the disc so as to bring successively openings of 
different size in range of the eye of the stage. The use 
of the diaphragm is to regulate the amount of light 
allowed to pass through the stage. 

(d) Observe the springs (clips) on the stage, one to the right 

and the other to the left of the column. Remove the 
clips and then return them to their proper places. The 
clips are used to hold a slip of glass (object-slide) in 
proper position on the stage. Take a clean object-slide 
and place it on the stage over the eye, and fasten it in 
position with the clips. Now remove it. 

(e) Observe the slightly concave glass (mirror), a little dis- 

tance below the stage. The mirror is used to collect 
the rays of light and reflect them through the eye of 
the stage to illuminate the object. Observe the free- 
dom and ease with which the mirror turns to enable 
you to get the light from almost any direction. 

(/) Observe the large tube (sliding-tube) directly above the 
stage. With your left hand move the tube up and 
down, while you hold the stand firmly on the table with 
your right hand. Observe that the tube is loosely 
clasped within an outer tube (sleeve). Move the tube 
up and down, at the same time slowly revolving it in 
the sleeve, to see how steady and uniform and slow you 
can make the movement. 

(g) At the top of the column observe the large head of a screw 
(milled head). Turn it back and forth, and at the 
same time carefully watch the lower end of the tube. 
What is the effect? The use of the milled head is to 
move the draw-tube up and down through a very short 



XVI PRELIMINARY EXERCISE. 

distance (fine adjustment). When you wish to move 
the tube a long distance (coarse adjustment) , you accom- 
plish it by moving it through the sleeve by hand, in the 
way you have already practiced. In some microscopes 
the coarse adjustment is accomplished by means of a 
large milled head at the side of the tube, which oper- 
ates a rack and pinion. 

(k) Remove the tube entirely from the sleeve. Let the left 
hand do this while the right hand holds the stand firmly 
on the table. Point the tube toward the light and look 
through it. You see that it is merely an open tube 
without any glass. Now replace the tube, carefully 
observing the former directions. 
(/) Take the small metallic cylinder (ocular or eye-piece) 
from the table and examine it. Observe that it has 
a glass lens at each end. You should be very careful 
not to touch a lens, especially never with your fingers. 
Hold the eye-piece toward the light, the smaller lens 
next to your eye, and look through it. 

(j) Observe the circular illuminated area (field of vision). 
Turn it toward the darkest part of the room to observe 
the difference in the illumination of the field. Now 
point the eye-piece toward the clear sky, or a white 
cloud, and observe that you get a beautiful field of 
white light. This is the best kind of light for the 
microscope. You should avoid getting the direct rays 
of the sun. Place the eye-piece in the upper end -of 
the tube, which is its proper position. 

(k) Now sit close to the table, allowing your forearms to rest 
on the edge. Move the microscope directly in front of 
you, placing it so that the column shall be next to you 
and the stage extending away from you. This is the 
position which you should always take with the micro- 
scope. 



THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. XV11 

(I) Look down through the eye-piece and tube, and at the 
same time illuminate the field, using your left hand at 
the mirror. Get the light from the window which is 
most nearly in front of you and gives you the most 
favorable light. While you are moving the mirror, 
carefully watch the field in order to secure the best 
illumination. When you have secured a well-illu- 
minated field, turn the mirror very little until only a 
portion of the field has good light. This is to be 
avoided. You should always have the field lighted uni- 
formly. Now turn the mirror in a wrong direction, and 
see how quickly you can again get good illumination. 
Let the instructor now see whether you have a good field. 

(m) When you have secured the best illumination, modify the 
light by the use of the diaphragm, carefully observing 
the effect on the illumination of the field. Observe 
that when the largest opening is in range of the field, 
the largest amount of light reflected from the mirror 
is admitted, while the other openings admit relatively 
smaller amounts. Move the microscope back out of 
your way. 

(n) Now take the lower magnifying power (objective) from 
the table and examine it : observe the lens in the 
tapering end, and remember not to touch it. Observe 
that the larger end is an open tube and has a screw- 
thread. This end is intended to screw into the lower 
end of the tube. The objective, together with the eye- 
piece, constitute the magnifying parts of the micro- 
scope. The eye-piece is so called because it contains 
the system of lenses which is next to the eye of the 
observer while in use. The objective is so called 
because it contains the system of lenses next to the 
object of study. A microscope which has these two 
systems of lenses is called a Compound microscope. 



XV111 PRELIMINARY EXERCISE. 

(o) Take the objective, and look through it at a letter in your 
open book on the table. Hold the smaller end of the 
objective about a half-inch from the page. Bring your 
eye about one inch from the larger end of the objective. 
Now gradually move the objective farther away from 
the printed letter until you reach the place (focus) 
where you can see the letter most distinctly. Now look 
at other letters, and be sure to find the exact focus. 
(/) Bring the microscope up into position again, and remove 
the tube, allowing your index finger to touch the upper 
rim of the eye-piece to prevent its sliding out of the 
tube. Now hold the tube horizontally and close to 
the table in front of the microscope, while you take 
the objective with your right hand and screw it into the 
tube. Return the tube, with objective, to the sleeve. 

(q) Take a slide which contains a small letter or figure 
mounted, look through the slide toward the light, and 
see what it is. Observe that the object is fastened to 
the slide under a very thin film of glass (cover-glass). 
You should avoid touching the cover-glass of a prepa- 
ration, and, in placing a slide on the stage, the cover- 
glass should always be uppermost. Now place the 
slide on the stage so that the object which is mounted 
under the cover-glass shall be in the centre of the eye 
of the stage. Fasten the slide in position by means of 
the clips. 

(r) Now, by means of the coarse adjustment, having your 
left hand on the draw-tube, gradually bring down the 
objective to about one- quarter of an inch from the slide. 
Do not look through the tube while you are moving it 
down toward the object, but carefully watch the objec- 
tive on the outside, with your eye nearly on a level with 
the stage. The objective is now supposed to be nearer 
the object than the proper focal plane : hence when 



THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. XIX 

you move it slowly upward, while looking in the tube, 
you can find the focus and see the object, but before you 
focus, you should illuminate the field. 

(s) Now, while looking through the tube, illuminate the field ; 
and then, by gradually drawing the tube up, find the 
focus. As soon as you discover any trace of the object, 
stop and use \htfine adjustment, to get the exact focus. 
If the object happens not to be properly in the field, 
you can move the slide very little on the stage. 

(J) Now remove the clips entirely, and then remove the slide 
from the stage, being careful not to lift it, as it might 
touch the lens in the objective. In handling a prepa- 
ration on the stage, you should slide it on or off the 
stage, but never lift it. 

(u) Remove the slide and hold it so that the figure or letter 
is in a proper position to be read • now return it to the 
stage and observe its direction under the microscope. 
It seems that the right and left sides have exchanged 
places and that the object is inverted. Under the com- 
pound microscope an object is seen as if it had revolved 
180 , or half a revolution, in a horizontal plane. Make 
sure that you understand this. 

(?') Now remove the objective and put on the higher power • 
instead, being very careful to follow former directions. 
In using the higher power, it is necessary to bring it 
nearer to the object before beginning to focus with the 
coarse adjustment. With some higher powers you need 
to begin within an eighth of an inch. You may now 
find the focus, as you did in case of the lower power, 
only using greater care and making the adjustment more 
gradually. 



XX PRELIMINARY EXERCISE. 

SUMMARY OF THE STEPS IN MANIPULATING THE MICROSCOPE. 

Preparatory to Study. 

i. Put on eye-piece and objective. 

2. Illuminate the field. 

3. Place preparation on stage. 

4. Move objective below focal plane. 

5. Find the focus. 

6. Adjust object in the field. 

7. Regulate the light. 

8. Study the object. 

After Study. 

1. Raise objective (in case of higher power). 

2. Remove preparation from stage. 

3. Remove eye-piece* and objective. 

4. Move the stand back from the edge of the table. 

CAUTIONS CONCERNING THE CARE AND USE OF THE MICROSCOPE. 

1. Never touch a lens with your fingers. 

2. To remove dust from the lens, gently wipe it with a clear* 

rag of soft, worn linen. If this is not successful, blow 
your breath on the lens and wipe it again. 

3. To remove balsam, or other adhesive substances from a 

lens, a drop of alcohol, turpentine, or benzol is neces- 
sary, but the young student should not attempt to use it. 
He should promptly submit the lens to the instructor. 

4. Lenses when not in immediate use should be protected 

against dust and injury, and all parts when stored should 
be protected against moisture and the action of chemi- 
cals. 

5. In a microscope having its adjustment by means of sleeve 

and sliding-tube, the latter should be frequently cleaned 
with vaseline, or other mineral oil, to keep it in good 
working order. 

* The eye-piece may remain in the tube. 



THE HAND MAGNIFIER. XXI 

6. The fine adjustment sometimes fails. In such a case, it is 

likely that the screw attached to the milled head has 
been run to its limit and must now be turned back. 

7. Never focus downward while looking in the tube, unless the 

object is already in sight. If the objective must come 
nearer to the object, you should watch the movement 
from the outside, in order to protect both the objective 
and the preparation against accident. 

THE HAND MAGNIFIER. 

{a) Take your hand lens, usually called a magnifier, and look 
at printed letters as you did with the low-power objec- 
tive. Now look at the back of your hand. When you 
use a magnifier, you should turn the object so as to let 
the light fall directly on the exact spot which you are 
trying to see. 

(^) Take a small piece of cardboard, on which a series of, 
about a dozen fine black lines have been drawn parallel, 
say about a sixteenth of an inch apart, and about two 
inches long, and lay it on the table. Now get a careful 
focus on the middle of this band of lines, and while the 
eye is observing the magnified space between two adja- 
cent lines, it can also see along the side of the lens and 
observe the real spaces between lines. Compare the 
magnified spaces with those outside. How many spaces 
outside are subtended by, or are required to reach across, 
one of the magnified spaces ? This shows you the 
magnifying power of your lens. For example : if one 
magnified space seems as wide as three spaces really 
are, the lens has a magnifying power of three diame- 
ters, which is written thus, x 3. 

(c) Get the magnifying power of other lenses. Now take 
your low-power objective, and, using it as you did the 
hand lens, find its magnifying power and write it. 



SIGNS AND SYMBOLS EMPLOYED. 

m = use hand magnifier. 

lp — use lower power of microscope, forty to 150 diameters. 

/ip=z.use higher power of microscope, 150 to 350 diameters. 

X 2, X 3, X 4. flfc.= enlarge sketch 2, 3, 4, etc.. diameters 
of the natural size of the object. 

de/.= 2 ' , 3' 4', etc.. make a sketch having its largest diam- 
eter 2 inches, 3 inches, etc. 

g = male. 

? = female. 



STUDY I. 
A STUDY OF AN AMOEBA. 

AMCEBA PROTEUS. 

As an example of a unicellular type of animals. 

Material Required. — (i) Living Amoebae; (2) preparations of stained 
Amoebae ; (3) preparations showing stages in reproduction. 

Habitat. 

The Amoeba* is an aquatic, microscopic animal, rarely large 
enough to be seen without the aid 01" a microscope. Amoebae 
may be found throughout the entire year, but are found 
most readily in summer, in standing water, attached to sub- 
merged plants, and in the mud at the bottom. A few 
fragments of such plants and a little ooze scraped from the 
bottom and placed in an aquarium jar will be quite likely 
to yield an abundance of Amoebae in a few weeks, although 
they may not seem to be present at first. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GENERAL APPEARANCE AND STRUCTURE. 

(a) Note the form and general appearance of the Amoeba 

(lp). Make a sketch {lip). 

(b) Carefully observe the form of the outline {Jip) and note 

any projections (pseudopodia) of the body substance 
(protoplasm). 

(c) If any pseudopodium is changing its form, carefully note 

the result. What use (function) do you attribute to 
the pseudopodia ? See whether you can verify, or 
prove this use. How ? 

* Any lar^e species of Paramecium may be substituted for Amceba in this study. 
A culture may be made in a few davs by allowing fresh animal or vegetable tissue to 
decay in water. The "lily-pad" uives an excellent culture 



2 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(d) By means of careful focusing (hp) observe the structure 

of the protoplasm. Is it of uniform appearance (homo- 
geneous) in different regions ? 

(e) Can you find a small body (nucleus) which is denser 

than the surrounding protoplasm (hp) ? Where is it 
located ? 

(/) Can you find one or more spots (vacuoles) which are 
clearer or less dense than the surrounding protoplasm ? 
Make a sketch (del. *%') representing the Amceba 
• with nucleus and vacuoles. 

(g) Carefully examine the protoplasm along the edge (ecto- 
sarc) of the body and pseudopodia to determine 
whether it is clearer or denser than the interior pro- 
toplasm (endosarc). Which is the more homogeneous? 
In your last drawing indicate by a faint line the bound- 
ary between ectosarc and endosarc. 

(h) Examine the interior, or endosarc of the Amceba body 
by carefully focusing a little lower than the surface or 
ectosarc. Can you find small particles (food parti- 
cles) which are evidently not protoplasm? Represent 
these in your sketch. 

B. CONCERNING ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS. 

(a) Have you found any structures or parts (organs) in the 

Amceba which you infer are used in performing a 
particular work, or function ? If so, name them. How 
do you suppose this little animal (animalcule) performs 
the function of moving from place to place (locomo- 
tion) ? Of taking food (prehension) ? Of digesting 
its food (digestion) ? Of breathing, or getting oxygen 
and eliminating carbonic acid gas (respiration)? Of 
feeling (sensation) ? 

(b) If possible observe an Amceba undergoing division 

(fission) and by this process forming two new Amoebae 



STUDY OF AN AMCEBA. 3 

as a second generation. In the process of forming a 
new generation (reproduction) what became of the 
parent Amoeba ? Has there been a natural death ? 
(V) If possible trace the Amoeba cell through its entire pro- 
cess of self division, and make sketches at intervals 
showing the successive stages. 

(d) Amoeba is the simplest form of an animal body 

and is a single unit of structure (cell). All higher 
animals are composed of an aggregation of more or 
less modified cells. 

(e) Make careful drawings on your drawing-tablet of an 

Amoeba and the various stages in its reproduction. 
00 Write up a description of the Amoeba from your notes 
and sketches. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. Characteristic properties of protoplasm. 

2. Essential elements and nature of a typical cell. 

3. The general functions performed in the animal body. 

4. Characteristics of Gregarina, Paramcecium, Foraminifera, 

and Vorticella. 

5. Comparison of Amoeba with other forms of Protozoa 

with reference to morphology, physiology, and habits. 

6. The parasitic habit of Gregarina and the nature of a 

parasitic animal. 

7. The characteristics and the classes of Protozoa. 

References. — 20 — 22 — 24 — 27 — 31 — 38 — 43 — 44— 52 — 62 — 79 — 80 — 87 
88 — 89 — 91 — 106 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 123 — 124 — 126 — 129 — 140 — 150. 



STUDY II. 
A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER SPONGE. 

S PONG ILL A (S/>.). 
As a type of unicellular animals associated in a colony. 

Material Required. — (i) Living specimens ; (2) preserved material; (3) 
preparations of the amoeboid cells; (4) preparations of spicules; (5) pre- 
parations of gemmules. 

Habitat. 

Spongilla, the fresh water Sponge, consists of a mass, or 
colony of microscopic cells, or animals, supported in 
position by a skeleton of spicules. The colony may be read- 
ily seen by the unaided eye, and is found in streams, lakes, 
ponds and in reasonably clean ditches. It is attached to per- 
manent floats or rafts, submerged boards, rocks and plants, 
and may be found at any season of the year. Colonies 
containing gemmules should be collected late in the fall or 
during the winter. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

GROSS AND MINUTE STRUCTURE. 

(a) Note the general appearance of the living or preserved 
Sponge (ni). Sketch. 

(p) Examine a mass of Sponge (m) and note the structure. 
Is there a definite arrangement of the needle-like rods 
(spicules) which project beyond the mass ? 

(c) Take a small mass of living Sponge, crush it on a glass, 
slip and examine it under a microscope (lp). Note 
the mass of cells (sponge-flesh) and the spicules, 
which constitute the supporting frame work (skeleton). 
Sketch. 



STUDY OF A FRESH -WATER SPONGE. 5 

(d) Examine the sponge-flesh (hp) and note the form of the 

cells composing it. Do they adhere firmly to one 
another ? Do you find a nucleus ? In what respect 
do these cells (amoeboid elements) agree with or differ 
from the Amoeba ? Sketch one or more amoeboid 
elements. 

(e) Examine the spicules {hp) and note their shape and 

structure. Sketch. 

(/) In a mass of Sponge gathered in winter observe (m) the 
small seed-like structures (gemmules) found among the 
spicules. Sketch. 

(g) Examine a gemmule (/p) and note the small, peculiarly 
shaped spicules (amphidiscs) upon its surface. Sketch 
gemmule and amphidiscs, and give a description. 

(h) If possible determine the interior structure of the gem- 
mule, and describe and sketch. 
(/) Make a careful drawing of a Sponge colony containing 
gemmules with amphidiscs, also drawings of amoeboid 
cells and spicules. 

(/) Write up a description of the fresh-water Sponge from 
your notes and sketches. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The anatomy of the Sponge colony. 

2. Specialization of cells and a physiological division of labor. 

3. Non-sexual reproduction and the simplest form of sexual 

reproduction by two specialized cells. 

4. Comparison of the Sponge with Amoeba. 

5. The character of calcareous, horny, and siliceous Sponges. 

6. Source, preparation, and use of the Sponge of commerce. 

7. The characteristics and the classes of Porifera. 

References. — 22 — 24 — 31 — 34 — 44 — 80 — 85 — 88 — 89— 120— 122— 129 — 
140 — 141— 150. 



STUDY III. 
A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER HYDRA. 

HYDRA FUSCA. 

As a type of a true multicellular ani?nal in its simple gastrula form. 

Material Required. — (i) Living and preserved specimens; (2) prepa- 
rations of the entire Hydra ; (3) preparations of transverse and longitudinal 
sections ; (4) preparations of teased tissue. 

Habitat. 
The fresh-water Polyp, or Hydra, may be found in reason- 
ably clean ditches, ponds and slowly moving streams. It is a 
small animal with a body about a quarter of an inch in length 
and is usually attached to twigs or weeds, notably the duck- 
weed (Lemna), and water- weed (Anacharis). Hydra may be 
collected from early spring until winter and kept indefinitely 
with proper care, in aquarium jars. Two species of Hydra are 
abundant, H. fusca and H. viridis, the former being of a 
brownish color and the latter of a green color and smaller than 
H. fusca. Either species may be used in this study. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GENERAL EXTERNAL CHARACTERS. 

(a) Observe a live Hydra in a glass tumbler or aquarium, 
after it has been for some time attached to a weed or 
the side of the vessel, undisturbed. Note its general 
form, size, color, etc. Sketch (X 4). 

(p) Note any movements that you can observe, and the 
different forms which the animal assumes. Now, with 
a fine wire or bristle, gently touch one of its arms and 
6 



STUDY OF A FRESH -WATER HYDRA. 7 

note the result. What do you infer concerning the 
function of these arms ? 

(c) If the Hydra is not in a favorable position for study, it 
may be removed to a watch glass or glass slip into a few 
drops of water, protected from pressure of the cover- 
glass in the latter case. A permanent preparation may 
be used instead. Note more carefully the form of the 
body (m or Ip). Compare the attached end or foot 
(proximal end) with the opposite (distal) end of the 
body, and note the differences. 

{d) Note the circle of arms (tentacles) at the distal end of 
the body ; their arrangement, number, shape. 

{£) Note the form of the distal region of the body (hypo- 
stome) above the base of the tentacles. At the tip of 
the hypostome, under favorable conditions, may be 
seen a small opening (mouth) leading into the digestive 
cavity. 
(/) Observe whether there is a bud or young Hydra attached 
to the body of the adult. Note also any slight thickening 
or elevation (spermary) from the surface of the Hydra 
in its distal region, or any similar structures (ovary) 
more nearly in the middle region of the body. If these 
structures are present, represent them in your-former 
sketch. 

(g) In a permanent preparation, examine the surface of the 
body-wall {hp) and sketch a small region. Do the same 
for one of the tentacles. 

B. INTERNAL STRUCTURE. 

(a) Examine a transverse section through the proximal 

region of the body (Ip). Note the large central 
digestive cavity (enteron, or primitive alimentary canal), 

(b) Examine the body-wall and note the number of cell- 

layers (Ip). Note the general appearance of the outei 



8 ANIMAL TYPES. 

layer of cells (ectoderm), and also of the inner 
(endoderm) layer. Which is the thicker layer ? 

(c) Can you find a trace of a very thin layer (mesoglea, or 
supporting lamella) between the ectoderm and endo- 
derm (lp)? Make a diagram of the section, {del. /') 
showing the relative thickness of the different layers of 
cells. 

(d) Examine a preparation of a longitudinal section through 
the middle of the body (lp). Make a diagram 
(del. 2'), representing the proper proportions of the 
enteron and cell- layers. 

(e) Examine the cells of the ectoderm (hp) and note their 
form, structure, etc. Do vou find their nuclei ? Can 
you find more than one kind of cells in the ectoderm ? 
Sketch a small region of cells. 

(/) Examine the cells of the endoderm and describe them. 
Sketch. 

(g) Examine a section through an ovary (hp). Note the 
peculiar form of the cells. Compare these (ovarian 
cells) with the typical ectodermal cells. Sketch. 

(h) Among the ovarian cells, try to find one (ovum or egg) 
much larger than the others, and note its peculiar form 
• and structure. What does this ovum resemble ? 
Sketch. 

(/) Examine a section through a spermary (hp) and note the 
peculiarity of the cells. Sketch. 

(J) Examine a preparation of ectoderm with the cells teased 
out (hp). Note a kind of cell (interstitial cell) much 
smaller than the typical ectodermal cell. Observe a 
small, pear-shaped body (nematocyst) occurring among 
both ectodermal and interstitial cells. Sketch. 
(k) Make careful drawings of the principal structures studied 
in Hydra. 



STUDY OF A FRESH -WATER HYDRA. 9 

(/) Write up a description of the form and structure (morph- 
ology) of the Hydra, from your notes and sketches. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The significance, in Hydra, of the remarkable powers of 
recovery from injury. 

2. The specialization and functions of ectoderm and endo- 

derm. 

3. Specialization of ectodermal cells in structure and func- 

tion. 

4. Demonstration of the simplest form of muscular and 

nerve cells. 
- 5. The two-fold method of reproduction, and a comparison 
of each with reproduction in Amoeba and Spongilla. 

6. Comparison of Hydra with types already studied. 

7. The general morphology of the Hydrozoa colony, Coral 

Polyp, Sea-anemone, and Physalia. 

8. The relation between Hydra and other forms of the 

group. 

9. The characteristics and the classes of Ccelenterata. 

References. — 20—22 — 27 — 31 — 34 — 43 — 44 — 62 — 79 — 80 — 85 — 88 — 89 
-91 — 106 — 116 — 120— 124 — 126 — 129 — 140 — 150. 



STUDY IV. 
A STUDY OF A STAR -FISH. 

ASTERIAS VULGARIS. 

As an example of the radial or Echinoderm type. 

Material Required. — (i) A set of dried specimens; (2) a supply of 
alcoholic specimens ; (3) one or more injected specimens ; (4) some care- 
fully dissected preparations; (5) preparation of the hard parts ; (6) trans- 
verse sections of a ray and other microscopical preparations of tissues. 

Habitat. 

The Star-fish belongs to a group of animals which live only 
in salt water. It may be found abundantly in certain locali- 
ties, notably in the oyster and clam beds along the coast, or 
attached to wooden piers and rocks below the surface of the 
water. The Star-fish, known among fishermen as the " five- 
finger," is the principal enemy of the oyster and clam along 
the coast, and is a great obstacle to successful oyster culture. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
A. GENERAL FORM AND TOPOGRAPHY. 

(a) Note the general form of the animal. How many and 

what are the principal regions or parts of the body? 

(b) Note that if each arm (ray) were cut off at its base a 

central portion (central disc) would remain. 

(c) Note the consistency of the body-wall (perisoma) and 

the character of its surface. 

(d) Can you identify a head (anterior) region, and an oppo- 

site (posterior) or tail region in this animal? 
10 



STUDY OF A STAR -FISH. II 

(e) Examine and compare the upper (aboral) and lower 
(oral) surfaces, or aspects. 

(/) On the central disc of the aboral surface, note a wart-like 
structure (madreporite). Observe its structure (tri) and 
sketch (X 4). 

(g) Note that the madreporite is located near the angle of two 
adjacent rays (interradial angle). How are the other 
rays arranged with reference to the madreporite? 

(A) Observe that one ray (anterior ray) is located directly 
opposite or across the central disc from the madrepo- 
rite. The anterior ray, together with the two adjacent 
rays to the right and left of it, constitute the trivium, 
the adjacent ones being designated respectively as the 
right and left rays of the trivium. The rays adjacent 
to the madreporite constitute the biviutn, and are des- 
ignated in a similar way. Now make a diagram (del.2 f ) 
representing the central disc, the rays and madreporite, 
and indicate the bivium and trivium, and name all 
the rays. 

(/) Where could you cut the Star-fish so as to divide its 
body into two similar halves ? Represent this by 
a dotted line in your diagram. 

B. STRUCTURES OF THE ABORAL SURFACE. 

(a) Note the hard projections (spines) distributed over the 
surface. Any hard substance developed in or upon 
the skin of an animal may be regarded as an external 
skeleton (exo skeleton). Can you detect any definite 
plan in the arrangement of the spines ? What do 
you suppose is their function ? 

(J?) Note the shape and structure of the spines (m). Are 
they all alike ? Sketch several (X 5). 

(e) Examine the surface between the spines (w or If) and look 
for soft, tapering projections (aboral tentacles). Sketch. 



12 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(d) At the base of the spines (m) look for small, hard, pincer- 
like structures (pedicellariae) . With your forceps pinch 
off a few and examine them under the microscope 
(Ip). Of how many parts does a pedicellaria consist? 
Sketch (X 10). What do you infer concerning their 
function? 

C. STRUCTURE OF THE ORAL SURFACE. 

(a) Examine the oral surface. Note the deep, wide middle 

groove (ambulacral groove) which extends along each 

ray. 
(J?) Note the area of membrane (peristome) in the central 

region of the oral disc, and the central opening, mouth, 

through this membrane. 

(c) How are the inner (proximal) ends of the ambulacral 

grooves related to the peristome ? Where do the outer 
(distal) ends of the ambulacral grooves terminate ? 
Make a diagram of the peristome and ambulacral 
grooves. 

(d) Note the numerous flexible structures (ambulacra, or tube 

feet) in the ambulacral groove (m), and observe their 
structure. Sketch an ambulacrum (X 5). 

(e) Observe how the ambulacra are arranged in the grooves? 

Describe their arrangement and indicate it by a 
diagram (X 5). 

(/) Note the spines along the edge of the ambulacral 
groove. In what respects do they differ from the 
spines in other regions? Represent them in your 
last sketch. 

(g) Note a whitish, thread-like structure (radial nerve) ex- 
tending along the middle of the groove (m), and a 
similar structure (nerve ring) along the inner edge of 
the peristome. How are the radial nerves and the 



STUDY OF A STAR -FISH. I 3 

nerve ring related? Where are the distal ends of the 
radial nerves? Make a diagram {del. 2') of the nerve 
ring and radial nerves. 

(h) Trace a radial nerve to its distal end at the tip of the 
ray (m) and observe that it terminates near the base of 
a median tentacle (terminal tentacle). At the base of 
the terminal tentacle (m) note a yellowish elevation 
(eye-spot). 

m (z) Make two outline drawings, natural size, one of the abo- 
ral and the other of the oral aspect of the Star-fish. 

(/) Write up a description, from your notes and sketches, of 
the external morphology of the Star-fish. 

INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
D. THE BODY CAVITY. 

(a) With your scissors carefully cut a small opening through 
the perisoma on the aboral surface near the distal tip 
of the anterior ray. Into this opening insert the 
point of one of the blades of your scissors and care- 
fully cut through the body-wall along one side of the 
ray to the inter-radial angle. Now return to the 
point of beginning and cut the opposite side of the 
ray in the same manner. You are now ready to begin 
study of the shape, position and relations of the 
internal organs (anatomy). 

{b) Note the space (coelom, or body cavity) within the body 
wall which has now been laid open. 

(c) Gently lift the loosened flap of the perisoma and note 
whether it is free or attached along its inner sur- 
face. Turn it back over the central disc, and note a 
pair of elongated, branched, greenish-brown bodies 
(hepatic caeca). Where are they attached? 



14 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(d) Note that each caecum is held in place by a thin mem- 

brane (mesentery). Is the membrane single or double? 
Make a diagram of the hepatic caeca of this ray. 

(e) Examine more carefully the structure of a caecum (m). 

Sketch a small portion. 

(/) Extending longitudinally along the middle line of the inner 

surface of the aboral wall of the ray, note a yellowish band 

(extensor muscle) . Examine a small piece of it under 

the microscope (Zip). What do you suppose is its 

function? 

(g) Open the two adjacent rays in the same way as you did 
the first. Now, with your scissors, carefully cut the body- 
wall across the inter-radial angles and turn back the 
cover of the three open rays and central disc. Observe 
a small duct (m) or membranous tube leading from 
the proximal end of each ccecum and uniting with 
its fellow in a common larger duct (pyloric duct). 
Can you demonstrate that the pyloric duct leads into 
a central sac? Use blow-pipe and tipped bristle. 

(h) Just below the pyloric duct observe a membranous lobe 
(cardiac pouch) which extends a short distance back 
into the ray and opens into a central digestive 
cavity (stomach). Demonstrate that it is connected 
with the stomach. Can you find a cardiac pouch in the 
adjacent ray ? What do you think is the function of 
the cardiac pouch ? 

(/) Carefully trace the digestive tube (alimentary canal) from 
the mouth on the oral surface to the aboral surface 
of the central disc. Use blow-pipe and tipped bristle. 
Note the variations in the size of the alimentary canal 
in its different regions, — the spacious region (stomach) 
just beyond the mouth, the pyloric sac, and the 
minute slender portion (intestine) near the aboral 



STUDY OF A STAR -FISH. I 5 

wall. Try to locate the very small terminal opening 
(anus) from the intestine. Make a diagram (deL 2') 
to represent the alimentary canal, including its gen- 
eral form, regions and openings. 

(/) In the floor of a ray look for two elongated branched 
structures, the reproductive organs (gonads), somewhat 
similar in appearance to the hepatic cceca, but during 
the spawning season much more conspicuous. Where 
are they attached? Are the two lobes of the same ray 
connected? Are those of the adjacent rays connected 
with each other? Where are their proximal ends 
attached? Sketch (X 3). 

\k) Examine a gonad more carefully (m) and sketch a small 
portion. 

(/) Along each side of the median ridge in the floor of the 
ray note a series of thin-walled sacs (ampullae). How 
are they arranged {in)} Make a diagram (X 5) of a 
small patch showing their arrangement. 

(ni) Ascertain whether there is any relation between the am- 
pullae in the ccelom and the ambulacra in the external 
groove. Use blow-pipe and tipped bristle. 

(n) Observe the hard parts (ossicles) constituting the floor 
of the ray and note (in) their form and relation. 
Make a sketch of a small portion of the floor, includ- 
ing a region of the median ridge, to show the form and 
relation of the ossicles and the relative position of the 
ampullae. 
(0) Study the end of a transverse section of the floor of a 
ray. Note (m) the cut end of a small tube (radial 
water-tube) extending above the radial nerve. Sketch 
the transverse section (x 4). 

(p) Examine a preparation of a transverse section of a small 
ray (lp or hp) and identify the various organs which 



1 6 ANIMAL TYPES. 

you have studied in the larger rays. Can you 
discover any connection between the water tubes, 
ampullae, and ambulacra ? Make an outline sketch. 
(q) Make outline drawings of the most important internal 
structures. Write up a description from your notes 
and sketches of the anatomy of the Star-fish. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. Demonstration of the water-vascular svstem in Star-fish. 

2. Demonstration of other systems of organs, with explan- 

ations of their functions. 

3. The Star-fish as a bisexual animal ; its reproduction and 

development. 

4. Concerning the structure, composition, and development 

of the exoskeleton. 

5. Concerning the power of restoring mutilated and lost 

parts. 

6. Comparison of Star-fish with types alreadv studied. 

7. The general morphology of the Sea-urchin, Sand-dollar 

Synapta, and Sea-cucumber. 

8. Comparison of the forms of this group. 

9. Characteristics and the classes of Echinodermata. 

References. — 22 — 24 — 31 — 34 — 44 — 80 — 85 — 88 — 91 — 104 — 116 — 120 — 
122 — 124 — 129 — 140 — 145 — 148 — 150. 



STUDY V. 
A STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM 

ALLOLOB OPHORA TUMIDA . 
As a type of the Vermes or simplest forms of bilateral animals. 

Material Required. — (i) Living earthworms ; (2) a supply of alcoholic 

specimens ; (3) a few dried preparations ; (4) a set of preparations con- 
taining transverse sections through the most instructive regions of the body ; 
(5) some egg-capsules ; (6) preparations of setae. 

Habitat. 

The Earthworm, or angleworm, is a very easily accessible 
animal, occurring everywhere in the soil near the surface, 
notably in gardens and heaps of old manure. The spring is 
the best time for collecting material intended for microscopical 
study ; but for external study and dissection the worms may 
be collected at any time, and can be kept alive in pots 
or jars of loam, with proper care. The egg-capsules should be 
collected in the spring. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. OBSERVATIONS UPON THE LIVING WORM. 

(a) Take a living Earthworm, and after passing it through 
water to moisten its body, place it upon the laboratory 
table and observe its movements. Note its course. 
Does it always move with the same end of its body in 
advance? Can you discover by what means it is 
enabled to crawl ? Note the course of its path on the 
table. 

17 



1 8 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(b) Gently touch one end with your forceps, and note the 
result. Now touch the opposite end, and note the 
result. Which is the. more sensitive? 

(V) Observe a blood vessel visible through the body-wall 
(m), extending longitudinally along the middle line, 
and watch for its pulsation. Note the colors of the 
body. 



B. — GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY AND EXTERNAL CHARACTERS. 

(a) Examine an alcoholic or dried worm, and note the gen- 
eral shape of the body. Measure the exact length and 
greatest thickness of the body. 

(/>) Examine and compare the two ends of the body (;;/). Are 
they alike? Which do you regard the forward (anterior) 
end, and which the hinder (posterior) end of the body? 
Has the animal a head or tail? In what respects do the 
anterior and posterior ends differ? 

(c) Which do you regard the lower (ventral) and which the 
upper (dorsal) surface of the animal? State your 
reasons. Are the dorsal and ventral surfaces exactly 
alike (i?i) ? If not, in what respects do they differ? 

(d) Imagine the animal divided vertically through the middle 
(median) line into right and left halves.. Note that the 
two lateral halves are exactly alike (bi-laterally sym- 
metrical) . 

(<?) Observe that the body is composed of sections or rings 
(somites). Can you find them in every region of the 
body? Are they everywhere exactly alike? 

(/) Note a thick band or girdle (cingulum) a little ways back 
of the anterior end of the body. Does the cingulum 
extend entirely around the body? Describe it. Over 
how many somites does it extend? Sketch (x 2) the 



STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM 1 9 

cingulum, including three somites immediately in 
front, and the three just back of it. 

(g) Examine the first entire somite at the anterior end of 
the worm (m). In front of the first somite note a 
pointed lip or lobe (prostomium). Is it attached prin- 
cipally to the dorsal or ventral region of the first 
somite? Sketch (X2) the anterior end of the animal, 
dorsal view, including the prostomium and first ten 
somites. 

(h) Below the prostomium observe a small opening, mouth, 
which perforates the first somite. 

(i) Observe the anus, a slit-like opening at the posterior 
end of the body. Does it extend up and down (dorso- 
ventrally) or from side to side (laterally)? Note the 
shape of the last somite and the form of the posterior 
end of the worm. Make a sketch (X 2) of the posterior 
end of the animal, including the last ten somites. 

(J) Make an accurate count and note the number of somites 
in front of the cingulum, the number occupied by 
the cingulum, the number back of the cingulum, and 
state the total number in the worm. 

(k) Carefully examine the surface of the body (ni) to detect 
small bristle-like exoskeletal structures (setae) implanted 
in the body-wall and projecting a little distance beyond 
the surface. How many setae are there in each somite, 
where situated and how arranged? In what direction 
do they point? Can you find somites without setae? 
What do you suppose is the function of the setae? 
With your forceps remove a seta and examine it under 
the microscope (Ip) and sketch. Make a diagram 
(X2) of a somite and indicate the position and 
arrangement of the setae. 

(/) Observe the very delicate outer membrane (cuticle) which 



20 ANIMAL TYPES. 

covers the entire body. It is irridescent in the /iv- 
ing worm, and readily removed after the dead speci- 
men has been in water a few hours. Examine a 
small piece under the microscope (hp) and sketch 
its structure. 

(m) Make a careful drawing of the Earthworm. Also make 
two enlarged drawings (X 2) of the anterior end, 
a dorsal and a ventral view, each including the first 
forty somites, also a drawing of the posterior end 
dorsal view, including the last ten somites, and one of 
a seta. 

(n) Write up a description of the topography and ex- 
ternal structure. 

C. GROSS ANATOMY. 

(a) Extend an Earthworm under water, dorsal surface up- 

ward, and fasten it down with pins. With fine pointed 
scissors cut through the body-wall along the median, 
dorsal line from end to end. Note the transverse, 
membranous partitions (septa) which, in general, cor- 
respond to the external markings of the somites and 
divide the ccelom into many chambers. 

(b) With your forceps carefully lift the flap on the left side, 

and with a sharp scalpel cut the septa close along the 
body-wall. Now pin this flap back, and do the same 
for the right side. 

(c) Note the alimentary canal, which is a straight tube extend- 

ing from the mouth to the anus, and observe its 
modifications in different regions. Note the thin- 
walled enlargement (buccal sac) in the region of the 
first three somites; the thick-walled portion (phar 
ynx) extending from the fourth to the seventh 
somite ; the straight tube (oesophagus) extending from 



STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM. 21 

the seventh to the twelfth somite ; the abrupt enlarge- 
ment (crop) extending from the twelfth to the sixteenth 
somite, and the similar one (gizzard) following and ex- 
tending back to about the twentieth somite. Trace 
the remaining portion of the alimentary canal from 
the gizzard to the anal opening. Make a diagram 
showing the various regions of the alimentary canal 
and name them. Note the fibrous structures passing 
from the surface of the pharynx. Where are they 
attached and what do you suppose is their use ? 

(d) In a freshly killed animal which has not been in alcohol, 
observe a dark-red blood vessel (dorsal vessel) which 
extends from the hinder end of the body forward as 
far as the pharynx, over which it spreads in numerous 
branches. Observe that in one region the dorsal 
vessel gives off large swollen branches, so-called 
"hearts," in pairs (lateral vessels) which pass around 
the alimentary canal. How many pairs of lateral 
vessels can you find ? Can you find any other 
branches given off from the dorsal vessel ? Sketch 
(X 2) the dorsal vessel including its lateral branches. 

ye) Back of the cingulum carefully remove a portion of the 
intestine, about an inch in length, to expose the organs 
below. With your pipette wash out this region with 
water and then in the same way wash it with seventy 
per cent alcohol. In a few minutes place the animal 
under water again and examine (ni) the body cavity 
along the ventral and lateral surfaces of the body 
wall. Note the long, slender excretory tubes (nephridia) 
thrown into loops. How many are there for each 
somite? Is the nephridium uniform throughout its 
entire length? Sketch (X 20). 

(/) In the median line, and extending longitudinally 



22 ANIMAL TYPES. 

along the floor of the body cavity, note a white thread- 
like structure (ventral nerve-chain). Observe (m) 
that there are at regular intervals slight enlargements 
(nerve ganglia) of the nerve. How often do they 
occur with reference to the somites? Sketch (X 2). 

D. MINUTE ANATOMY. 

(a) Examine a transverse section of the animal (lp) through 

the intestinal region, placing the slide so that the 
dorsal view of the section shall extend away from you 
and the ventral view toward you. Observe the general 
outline of the section. Identify the body-wall, ccelom, 
intestine, dorsal vessel, lateral vessel, nephridia, and 
setae. 

(b) Note that the intestinal wall in one place makes a deep 

fold (typhlosole) into the intestine and thus narrows 
its cavity. In which region of the intestine is the 
typhlosole situated ? 

(c) In the ventral region of the ccelom note {lp) an oval- 

shaped structure, ventral nerve-chain, with large cells 
(nerve cells) containing distinct nuclei. 

(d) Between the nerve chain and intestine, note a blood ves- 

sel (ventral vessel). Compare its size with that of the 
dorsal vessel. Make a careful diagram {lp) represent- 
ing in outline all the structures in this section which 
you have identified {del. 2'). 

(e) Examine a favorable portion of the body-wall (hp) and 

note the number of cell layers and their arrangement. 
Note that the cells of each region are alike and inti- 
mately connected (tissue) and have apparently the 
same function. Observe the outer, thin, structureless 
layer, cuticle, and next to it the layer of columnar 
cells (epidermis) set side by side at right angles to 



STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM. 23 

the surface of the body. At which end of these cells 
are their nuclei ? Note next a layer of tissue some- 
what thicker than the epidermis (circular muscles) 
with long fibers extending around the body ; also the 
inner thicker layer (longitudinal muscles) whose fibers 
extend longitudinally to the body and are arranged in 
sheets, the cross sections of which have a feathery 
appearance. Make a drawing of the body wall 
showing the different cell-layers {del. /'). 
(/) Examine an Qgg capsule (m) and make two sketches, one 

of natural size and the other enlarged (X 5). 
(g) Study a preparation of the contents of a newly-laid cap- 
sule (hp) and observe the large spherical reproductive 
(?) bodies, ova, and the minute, lash-like reproductive 
{$) structures (spermatozoa). Sketch. 
(h) Examine a preparation {lip) of the contents of an older 
capsule, and observe that instead of ova there are 
young Earthworms, more or less developed (embryos). 
Sketch. 
(1) Write a description of the gross and minute anatomy of 
the Earthworm, and make drawings of the principal 
structures included in this study. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. Demonstration of the digestive, circulatory, excretory, 

sensory, and reproductive systems in the Earthworm. 

2. Habits of the Earthworm, and its relation to the soil. 

3. Tapeworm, Trichina, Pasteworm, and Leech compared. 

4. Degenerate condition of organs in parasitic animals. 

5. The life-history of the Tapeworm, or of the Liver-fluke. 

6. The characteristics and the classes of Vermes. 

References. — 22 — 27 — 31 — 34 — 41 — 43 — 44 — 62 — 79 — 80 — 85 — 88—91 
-106 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 124 — 126 — 129 — 137 — 140 — 150 — 156 — 166. 



STUDY VI. 
A STUDY OF A CRAYFISH. 

CAMBARUS IMMUNIS. 

As a type of the Arthropoda or animals, showing more or less distinctly marked 
body regions and segmented appendages. An example of the crustacean 
type. 

Material Required.— (1) Living Crayfishes; (2) a supply of alcoholic 
material ; (3) a few prepared exoskeletons of the Crayfish ; (4) a prepared 
exoskeleton of the Lobster; (5) Carefully dissected preparations of the 
Crayfish and Lobster ; (6) Injected preparations of the Lobster or Cray- 
fish ; (7) microscopical preparations of tissue. 

Habitat. 

The Crayfish is found in salt and fresh water. It is most 
accessible in ditches, along streams, in shady places and in low 
moist ground where it can reach water by burrowing a few feet 
below the surface. Its favorite hiding place is under stones 
lying near the edge of streams and in shallow water. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. — OBSERVATIONS UPON THE LIVING CRAYFISH. 

(a) Study a living Crayfish in a tray of water and note its 
method of locomotion. By what method does it move 
forward? How many and which pairs of legs are 
employed ? How does it move backward ? Explain 
the process. In which direction can it move most 
rapidly ? 

(6) Frighten the animal by suddenly thrusting your hand 
toward it from in front and note the result. Now 
24 



THE CRAYFISH. 25 

slowly move your pencil toward one of its large claws 
and note its action. Touch one of its long "horns." 
What do you infer concerning their function ? 
(/) With your forceps turn the animal on its back, upon the 
table, and note the result. In what way can you pick 
up the Crayfish with your fingers so that it cannot 
defend itself ? 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
B. — THE GENERAL FORM AND REGIONS OF THE BODY. 

(a) Note the general form of the body as seen from the dor- 
sal aspect. Into how many principal regions is it dis- 
tinctly marked? 

{b) Note the anterior region (cephalo-thorax) including the 
head and anterior body region with a continuous 
dorsal shell (carapace) covering. Note the posterior 
body region (abdomen), protected by a number of ring- 
like covers, one for each somite. 

(c) Observe a more or less distinct transverse line or groove 

(cervical groove, or suture) which marks the carapace 
into two regions, the anterior (cephalic) or head region, 
and the posterior (thoracic) region. Trace the poste- 
rior and ventral edges of the carapace and note whether 
they are free or attached to the body. 

(d) Note the forward projection (rostrum) of the carapace, 

between and above the eyes. Make a careful sketch of 
the carapace, representing the cervical suture and 
rostrum. 
(e) Of how many somites is the abdomen composed ? Bend 
and straighten the abdomen and note how the edges 
of the somites fit upon each other. 
(/) In the last somite (telson) on its ventral aspect, note a 
longitudinal slit, the anal opening. Sketch the abdo- 



26 ANIMAL TYPES. 

men as seen from the dorsal aspect, representing 
nothing but the somites. 
(g) Examine the shape of the third abdominal somite, 
tracing it entirely around the body. Note the shape 
of the dorsal portion (tergite) of the somite shell; its 
lateral parts (pleurites); its ventral part (sternite). 
Note that the ventral edges of the pleurites end as 
scallops. Do all the pleurites terminate in this way? 
Sketch the left lateral view of the entire body, omit- 
ting the appendages, and number the abdominal 
somites from the thorax back. 

C. THE THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL APPENDAGES. 

(a) Note the filament-like appendages (swimmerets) on the 
abdomen. Where on the somites are they located ? 
How many for each somite? How many pairs in all ? 
Which somites, if any, have no swimmerets ? 

(t?) Examine carefully the swimmerets on the third somite 
(m). Note the stalk of the swimmeret, or proximal 
portion (protopodite) and its two branches, an outer 
branch (exopodite) and an inner (endopodite). Sketch 

(xi). 

(c) Compare the swimmerets of different somites. Are they 
all alike ? Describe any differences in appearance. 

(d) Examine the distal end of the abdomen (caudal fin). 
Spread out the caudal fin and note the plan of its 
parts. Note the number and how the parts arrange 
themselves in folding. What is the function of the 
caudal fin ? Sketch (X 2). 

(e) Note the large appendages of the thorax. How many 
pairs are there ? Examine the first having large jaws 
(chelae) and note the number of pieces (segments) of 
which it is composed. Note in how many places the 



THE CRAYFISH. 2) 

segments unite to form joints (articulation). Sketch 
one of these appendages (chelapeds), carefully repre- 
senting all the segments and articulations (X 2). 

(/) Examine one of the second pair of appendages and 
compare it with one of the first. Now compare it with 
one of the third pair and note the differences. 

(g) Examine one of the fourth and fifth pairs and compare 
them with the preceding pairs. Sketch one of the 
fourth pair (X 2). 

(h) Can you discover any similarity between the thoracic 
and abdominal appendages ? If you imagine the two 
parts of the jaws, or pincers in the thoracic append- 
ages as representing the exopodite and endopodite of 
the swimmerets, then which of these structures is not 
represented in the fourth and fifth thoracic append- 
ages ? 

D. CEPHALIC APPENDAGES ORAL AND TACTILE. 

{a) Note three similar pairs of appendages (maxillipeds) just 
in front of the large pincers, or chelae (in). With 
your forceps, lift the first pair and ascertain the 
number of segments in each. Describe and sketch 
(X 2). Examine the other two pairs of maxilli- 
peds and compare these with the first. 

(b) Examine two pairs of thin appendages (maxillae) in front 

of the maxillipeds (m). Sketch (X 2). Can you 
identify exopodite and endopodite ? 

(c) Note a pair of short, hard, toothed appendages (mandi- 

bles) in front of the maxillae {in). Note that each 
mandible bears a jointed part (palpus). Sketch (x 2). 
Identify the mouth and describe its location. 

(d) Note the long horn-like projections (antennae) on the 

front of the head. Describe their location with ref- 



28 ANIMAL TYPES. 

erence to the rostrum. Examine their large basal 
segments. How many segments in each antenna ? 
Of what do the antennae consist? Sketch (x 2). 
(e) Near the base of the antennae, note a pair of smaller, 
similar appendages (antennules) How many branches 
altogether? Describe and sketch (X 2). 

(/) Note the position of the eyes. What is peculiar concern- 
ing their attachment ? Examine the stem or stalk 
upon which they are situated (pi). With your forceps 
extend and retract the eye. Move it from side to side 
to determine its range of motion. Sketch (X 2). 
Examine the surface of the eye (pi) and note the 
small spaces (facets) which are characteristic of com- 
pound eyes. Sketch a small portion to represent the 
facets. 

(g) On the ventral surface of the basal segment of the anten- 
na, note a whitish cone (pi) containing a small opening 
from the excretory organs (green-glands). 

(h) In the basal segments of each antennule, examine a 
small depression (ear-sac) having a thin membranous 
floor and beset by delicate setae, or hairs. What ex- 
ternal evidence is there of this structure being an ear ? 

(/) Make a drawing of a dorsal view of the Crayfish, first 
carefully arranging the appendages in a natural posi- 
tion. Write a description of the external morphology 
of the Crayfish. 

INTERNAL ANATOMY. 
E. — THE GILLS AND THE GILL CHAMBER. 

(a) With the points of your scissors carefully cut through 
the carapace along the dorsal median line as far for- 
ward as the cervical suture and then down on the 
left side, and remove the left portion of the carapace. 



THE CRAYFISH. 29 

Note the membranous lining and its extent, also the 
structure of the carapace and the fringe of setae or 
hairs along its ventral edges. 

(b) Observe the feather-like respiratory structures (gills) now 

exposed. Observe the region or space they occupy 
(gill-chamber) and the character of its inner wall To 
what are the gills attached and how arranged ? 
How many sets of gills can you find ? How many 
gills are there of each kind with reference to their 
place of attachment ? Are the gills external or inter- 
nal structures ? 

(c) Let some water flow over the gills so as to float them back 

into their natural position against the body. What 
is the natural course of the water through the gill- 
chamber in the living animal ? Now make a sketch 
( X 2) of the gills attached to the left side of the body. 
(d) Examine a microscopic preparation (lp) of a small gill 
and sketch it. 

F. — THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 

(a) Remove the right side of the carapace and pin the ani- 

mal under water, dorsal surface upward. Begin at the 
first abdominal somite, and carefullv cut through the 
body wall along each side of the abdomen backward to 
the telson, and remove the tergites. If the membrane 
lining the inner surface of the exoskeleton was left intact 
carefully remove it. 

(b) Examine one of these tergites carefully and note its 

hard and elastic structure. The substance to which 
these properties are due (chitin) forms the hard parts 
of the Crayfish. 
(c) In the dorsal region of the thorax, note a whitish oblong 
bodv (heart). The heart is the principal organ oi 



30 ANIMAL TYPES. 

the circulatory system. Carefully move it from side to 
side to discover its points of connection. Note the 
cavity (pericardial sinus) in which it is suspended. 

(d) *At the anterior end of the heart, note the connection of 

several small whitish tubes or vessels (arteries) which 
convey the blood away from the heart when the latter 
contracts. 

(e) Note the large median tube (ophthalmic artery) which 

extends forward and sends branches to the eyes. 
Observe a pair of vessels (antennary arteries) which 
take their origin near the base of the ophthalmic, one 
on each side, and pass obliquely downward and for- 
ward to supply the antennae. A short distance from 
their origin, the antennary arteries give off branches 
(gastric arteries) which supply the walls of the stomach 
with blood. 

(/) At the posterior end of the heart, observe a large median 
blood vessel (superior abdominal artery) which passes 
back over the intestine and supplies the latter and 
adjacent regions. 

(g) Examine the dorsal surface of the heart (m) to find a pair 
of valved slits (ostia), through which the blood enters 
the heart from the pericardial sinus. Can you find 
other ostia? Make a careful sketch (X 2) of the heart 
and arteries, naming the parts. 

(A) Below the pericardial sinus, observe the reproductive 
organs, either spermary ($) or ovary (?). The sper- 
mary is a soft, white, three-lobed body ; one lobe 
extending posteriorily and two anteriorly. Note at the 

30 junction of the lobes a pair of coiled tubes (sperm- 
ducts) passing in a ventral direction. Sketch (x 2). 
(/) The ovary is a structure somewhat similar to the spermary, 

* The student should have access to an injected preparation. 



THE CRAYFISH. 3 1 

excepting that its anterior lobes are situated more 
ventrally and that it may be relatively very large when 
the ova are nearly ripe. The tubes (oviducts) are 
straight and wider, and shorter than the sperm-ducts. 
Sketch (X 2). Can you find external openings of ovi- 
duct or sperm-ducts? 

G. — THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 

(a) Remove as much of the muscles along the left side of the 
thorax as is necessary to expose the alimentary canaL 
Note the large muscles which lie in the abdomen, 
especially those {extensor muscles) which are situated 
above the alimentary canal. Observe that the alimentary 
canal is nearly a straight tube, extending through the 
entire length of the body. 

(p) Identify the short, wide tube, oesophagus, extending ver- 
tically from the mouth to the spacious enlargement, 
stomach, which occupies the greater part of the head 
and extends a little ways into the thorax. 

(c) Note that the stomach consists of two regions, an ante- 
rior (cardiac chamber) and a posterior (pyloric chamber) 
separated by a constriction or infolding of the wall. 
*Note that the stomach is lined by a firm layer of 
chitin, which in one region is developed into a com- 
plex mechanism (gastric mill) of prominent internal 
folds, and three hard, dark structures (teeth). 

{a) Back of the pyloric chamber, observe (ni) the brownish 
lobed body (liver) on each side of the alimentary canal. 
The liver is a digestive organ whose function is to 
secrete a liquid (bile) which flows through a tube 
(bile duct) into the intestine. Can you find the bile 
duct ? Sketch (X 2) the liver and bile duct. 

(e) From this point trace the intestine back to its external 

* The student should have access to a dried preparation of the stomach of a Lobster. 



32 ANIMAL TYPES. 

opening, anus, in the telson. Make an outline sketch 
of the alimentary canal from a lateral view, naming all 
its parts. 

H. — THE CENTRAL NERVE CORD. 

(a) With your scissors cut off the intestine near the anus and 
carefully lift it to one side, removing it from its nat- 
ural position as far forward as the oesopahgus. 
Observe the large white rolls of firm tissue (flexor 
muscles) which extend along each side of the median 
groove from which the intestine has been removed. 

(/;) Carefully press apart the two flexor muscles along the 
median line. In the floor of the abdomen along the 
median line, note the slender, white cord, central nerve 
chain, containing abrupt ganglionic enlargements. 
How many ganglia are there in the abdomen ? Note 
the branches (nerves) given off along the sides of the 
ganglia to supply the muscles of this region. 

(c) Trace the central nerve chain forward through the thorax 

carefully cutting away all the hard parts necessary to 
expose the nerve. Note the first large ganglion (sub- 
cesophageal ganglion) back of the oesophagus. From 
this ganglion trace two branches (oesophageal collar) 
which pass around the oesophagus, one on each side, 
and unite in a larger ganglion ("brain," or supra-aesoph- 
ageal ganglion) some distance in front of the oesoph- 
agus and near the base of the antennules. This 
ganglion gives off branches to the eyes, antennae and 
antennules. 

(d) Examine the ganglia situated in the thorax. How 

many are there ? Can you find nerves given off to the 
thoracic appendages? Make a careful sketch (X 2) 
representing the central nerve chain, ganglia, nerve 
collar, and "brain." 



THE CRAYFISH. 33 

(e) Examine an eye of the Crayfish, which has been for about 
five days in a .5% solution of chromic acid. Sketch 
it, including the eye-stalk. Strip off the clear cover 
(cornea) in front and examine it (lp), and note your 
observations. 

(/) Tease up a portion of the distal end of the eye in dilute 
glycerine and examine (lp) it. Observe the elongated 
angular bodies (crystalline cones) which may be still 
continuous with spindle-shaped structures (rhabdomes). 
Where do you find the color cells (pigment cells) ? 
Sketch a few cones and rhabdomes. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. A general view of the morphology and physiology of the 

Crayfish. 

2. The life-history and habits of the Crayfish. 

3. The biology of food. 

4. The general morphology of the Lobster, Spider-crab, 

Hermit-crab, and Sow-bug. 

5. The power in Crustacea and lower groups of casting off 

mutilated parts and developing new ones. 

6. A comparison of the forms of this group with reference 

to structure and habits. 

7. Comparison of the crustacean type with types already 

studied. 

8. The characteristics and the orders of Crustacea. 

References. — 20 — 22 — 24 — 31 — 34—43 — 44 — 72—79 — 80 — 82 — 85 — 88 
— 91 — 96 — 106 — 108 — 115 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 124 — 126 — 129 — 140 — 144 — 
145 — 150— 170. £* 



STUDY VII. 
A STUDY OF A GRASSHOPPER. 

*CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. 

To present the type of arthropods which are organized for aerial respiration 
and flight. An example of the Insects. 

Material Required. — (i) Live Grasshoppers ; (2)"a supply of alcoholic 
material ; (3) a set of preparations of tissues ; (4) several preparations of 
the hard parts ; (5) carefully dissected specimens demonstrating the diges- 
tive system ; (6) dissected specimens demonstrating the nervous system ; 
(7) a series of stages in the development of the Grasshopper. 

Habitat. 

Grasshoppers inhabit nearly every section of the United 
States, and may be collected in abundance during the sum- 
mer and fall of the year. The supply of material can be 
stored in alcohol and kept indefinitely and ready for use. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
A. GENERAL APPEARANCE AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BOD\. 

(a) Note the general outline of the body, viewed from its 

dorsal aspect, also as seen from a lateral aspect. 

(b) Of how many principal regions is the body composed? 

Identify the head, thorax and abdomen. 

(c) Compare the general plan of the body with that of the 

Crayfish. Has the Grasshopper a more or less distinct 
head and neck? 

* Any of the larger forms may be used instead of the species here named, and it is not 
important that the entire class be provided with the same species. 

34 



THE GRASSHOPPER. 35 

B, THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES. 

(a) Observe the shape of the head. Is it movable? Make 

an outline sketch of the left view (X3). 

(b) How many pairs of antennae are there? Note their 

attachment. How many segments (ni) in each antenna? 
Sketch an antenna (X 3). Compare the antennae 
of the Grasshopper with those of the Crayfish. 

(c) Observe the position and shape of the eyes. Examine 

(ni) them to determine whether they are compound 

eyes. In general, are they like or unlike the eyes 

in the Crayfish, and in what respects ? In your last 

sketch indicate the shape and position of the left eye. 

(d) Just in front of the large eye observe (ni) a very small 
eye (ocellus). This is a single (simple) eye. Has it a 
mate on the other side of the head? Can you find 
(ni) any more simple eyes, or ocelli on the head? If 
so describe their position and say whether they are 
in pairs. Represent the ocelli in your sketch. 

(e) In the lower part of the face, in front, observe a mov- 
able flap, the upper lip (labrum). Move it, observe its . 
mode of attachment and its shape. Sketch the front 
view (X 3). 

(/) Press the labrum up in front and with your scissors cut 
it off close to the head. Observe back of its natural 
position a pair of hard, sharp-pointed jaws, mandibles. 
Carefully pry them open with your forceps. In which 
direction do they move, laterally or longitudinally? 
Remove one, examine (ni) its shape and make a sketch 

(X 3)- 
(g) Open the other mandible as far as possible and observe 

(ni) a brown structure (tongue) a little ways back of the 

mandible. Identify the month, 
(h) Examine the lower, posterior region of the head and 



36 ANIMAL TYPES. 

note a thin flap (labium) or lower lip. Move it and 
observe its shape. Note the pair of jointed append- 
ages (labial palpi) attached to its base. How many seg^ 
ments (m) in each labial palpus ? Remove it and sketch 
the posterior view of the labium with its palpi (X 3). 
(/) In front of the lower lip observe (m) a pair of smaller 
jaws, 7?iaxillce, and note that each consists of three 
parts : a curved, toothed structure, which is the max- 
illa proper, a spoon-shaped structure covering the 
maxilla, and a jointed part (maxillary palpus). How 
many segments in this palpus (m). Remove one of 
the maxillae and sketch it, representing all its parts 
(X 3 ). 

C. THE THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES. 

(a) Observe the divisions of the thorax. How many are 
there? 

(&) Examine the triangular anterior division (pro-thorax), sit- 
uated just back of the head. Make an outline sketch 
of the lateral view (x 3). 

(c) Observe the first, or anterior pair of legs. To which 
region of the thorax are they attached? Examine (m) 
one of the legs carefully and note the number of its 
segments. 

(d) Begin at the body and note the shape and relative size 
of the segments. Examine (m) the short, thick seg- 
ment (coxa) which moves upon, or articulates with the 
hard covering of the thorax ; observe the next segment 
(trochanter). How does it compare in size with the 
first? Now compare the third segment (femur) with 
the first two. Compare the femur with the fourth seg- 
ment (tibia) with reference to size, shape and struc- 
ture. 



THE GRASSHOPPER. 37 

(e) Examine (m) the remaining region (tarsus) of the leg. 
How many segments has it? Observe that one tarsus 
is provided with a pair of sharp hooks and others 
with soft pads or cushions. What do you suppose is 
the function of the hooks and pads? Make a careful 
sketch of the front view of this leg (X 3). 

(/) Examine the middle division of the thorax (meso 
thorax). Carefully trace the boundary between this 
division and the hinder portion of the thorax (meta- 
thorax), beginning on the ventral surface. Sketch the 
left lateral view of the mesothorax (X 3). 

(g) Examine (m) the pair of legs on the mesothorax, and 
state in what particular they differ from the first pair. 

(h) On the mesothorax just above the coxa observe a small 
narrow opening (spiracle) which is guarded by a pair 
of lips and serves as a breathing pore. Represent it 
in your last sketch. 
(*) Carefully examine the wings. Lift them and spread out 
those on the left side. How many pairs are there? 
To which division of the thorax are the first, or 
anterior pair attached? To which division are the 
posterior wings attached ? 

(J) Carefully note the shape and color of the left anterior 
wing. Examine (m) its structure. Sketch this wing 

(X3). 

{k) Study the posterior wings in the same way, and observe 
the system of thread-like ridges (veins) which consti- 
tute its framework. Spread out this wing, pin it and 
sketch. 

(/) Compare the anterior with the posterior wing and note 
the principal points of difference. y How are the two 
related when not in use? Do you think there is any 
difference in function? 



38 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(m) Examine the hindermost division or metathorax. Sketch 
the lateral view (X 3). 

(n) Examine (m) the third pair of legs and identify all its 
segments. Compare them with the corresponding 
segments of the first pair. Sketch (X 3). 

(0) What do you suppose is the function of the first and 
second pairs of legs ? The third pair ? What 
methods of locomotion has the Grasshopper? 

D. THE ABDOMEN AND ITS PARTS. 

(a) Observe the general shape of the abdomen, and the 

shape and arrangement of its somites. Does the 
covering of each somite extend entirely around the 
body as one piece ? 

(b) Examine the broad triangular piece in the dorsal region 

next to the metathorax. This represents the first ab- 
dominal somite. Does it extend entirely around the 
body? 

(c) In the side of this incomplete somite observe (m) 

a large crescent-shaped cavity (auditory sac) contain- 
ing across its opening a delicate shiny membrane 
(tympanum), ear drum. Near the anterior edge of 
the auditory sac, observe (m) a spiracle. 

(d) Examine the covering or exoskeleton of the second ab- 
dominal somite. Of how many pieces does it consist ? 
Identify the tergite, pleurite and sternite as you did in 
your study of the Crayfish. 
(e) How many abdominal somites has this Grasshopper ? 
Carefully count the tergites, beginning with the first or 
incomplete somite. Now count the sternites. 

(/) Along the ventral edge of the pleurites observe (m) sl 
series of spiracles. In which somites do you find 
spiracles ? 



THE GRASSHOPPER. 39 

(g) Observe that the somites in the posterior region of the 
abdomen are much modified in shape. This modifi- 
cation varies with the sex. In the female the abdomen 
is more tapering than in the male, and ends in two 
pairs of curved spines (ovipositor) which when brought 
together form a channel through which the eggs are 
deposited into the ground. Of which sex is your 
Grasshopper? 

(h) Make a careful sketch of the abdomen, left view, repre- 
senting all your observations (X 3). 

(/) What are the principal points of similarity and difference 
between the Crayfish and Grasshopper ? 

INTERNAL AX ATOMY. 
E. CIRCULATORY AND REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 

(a) Take a large Grasshopper, either alcoholic or fresh, and 
remove the wings. Pin the specimen dorsal surface 
up, on the bottom of the dissecting tray. Remove 
the dorsal portion of the exoskeleton by begin- 
ning with the eighth or ninth somite and carefully 
cutting through the hard covering forward along the 
left side of the body to the head, using sharp pointed 
scissors. Now return to the point of beginning and 
with your forceps lift the cut edge of the upper wall, 
and with the point of your scalpel carefullv loosen the 
tissues attached to its inner surface, turn the flap 
to your right and pin it down. The organs should 
should be studied under water. 

{$) Examine the heart, which is a dorsal tube similar in posi- 
tion to that of the Crayfish. How does it differ from 
the heart in the latter animal ? Sketch. 

(c) Observe (m) the row of white rounded bodies (air-sacs) 
alon^ each side of the abdomen. The air-sacs are 



40 ANIMAL TYPES. 

likely to remain attached to the inner surface of the 
flap which has been turned back. Note the white 
branched tubes (tracheae) connected with the air-sacs. 
How are the air-sacs and tracheae related to the spiracles? 
Carefully remove an air-sac and a portion of a trachea 
and examine them under the microscope (Ip). Sketch. 

(d) If your specimen is a female, identify the ovaries 

which are likely to be quite prominent in the abdom- 
inal cavity. Note the shape (m or ip) and color of the 
ova. Sketch (X 4). Identify the oviducts, one on 
each side, leading to the ovipositor. 

(e) Remove all the eggs on the left side, being careful not 

to injure the organs which lie below. 

(/) In the lateral regions of the thorax observe the large 
white bundles of muscles. Note their direction on the 
the right side. What do you suppose is their func- 
tion? With your forceps pull off a small bit of muscle, 
tease it out on a slide with your needles, and 
examine it under the microscope {Ip). Sketch. 

(g) Examine (hp) a permanent preparation of stained muscle. 
Note the fine thread-like structures (muscle fibres). 
Observe the more highly stained nuclei. Carefully 
focus upon a fibre :.nd determine whether there are 
faint parallel markings across it (striated muscle fibre), 
or whether the fibre is without such strice, or marks- 
(unstriated muscle fibre). Make a careful sketch repre- 
senting a few fibres with nuclei, etc. 

F. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

(a) Clear away all the muscles in the thorax lying above or 
along the left side of the alimentary canal. 

{£>) Trace the digestive tube or alimentary canal, beginning 
at the anterior end. Observe the dark portion of the 
tube, oesophagus, passing up from the mouth and 



THE GRASSHOPPER. 41 

curving backward. Note its enlargement, crop, in the 
prothorax. 

(c) Back of the crop, note several spindle-shaped pouches 

(gastric caeca) which extend parallel with the digestive 
tube. Are the gastric caeca connected with the digest- 
ive tube ? How many are there ? Make an outline 
sketch of the digestive tube up to this point (X3) and 
develop it as you continue your study. 

(d) Back of the gastric caeca, observe an enlargement, the 

true stomach. Through how many abdominal somites 
does it extend ? 

(e) Trace the intestine from the stomach to its external open- 

ing. Complete your sketch. 
(/) Press the crop a little to the right and look for several 
clusters of small bodies (salivary glands) and note the 
small tube which connects them with the mouth. Sketch 

(X3). 

(g) Write up your notes on the anatomy of the Grasshopper, 
and make careful drawings of the principal organs. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. The morphology and physiology of respiration and circula- 

tion in the Grasshopper. . 

2. Comparative review of the digestive and nervous systems 

in the Grasshopper and Crayfish. 

3. Characteristics of the Moth, Beetle, Bee, Fly, etc. 

4. The characteristics of Spiders. 

5. The life-history and metamorphosis in insects. 

6. Intelligence in insects and lower types of animals. 

7. Relation of insects to plants and to other animals. 

8. The characteristics and the orders of Insecta. 

References. — 8 — 22—24 — 31 — 33 — 34 — 44 — 50 — 80 — 85 — 88 — 91 — 98 — 
99 — 101 — 103 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 124 — 128 — 129 — 130 — 135 — 136 — 140 — 148 
- 150— 168. 



STUDY VIII. 
A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 

UNIO P LI CAT A. 

As an example of the soft-bodied unseg??iented Molhisk type, 

^Material Required. — (i) living mussels; (2) stock supply for dissec- 
tion ; (3) a set of transverse sections for gross anatomy ; (4) a supply of 
shells ; (5) a few injected specimens ; (6) the young stages of the mussels ; 
(7) microscopic preparations of tissues. 

Habitat. 

The Pond, or Swan Mussel is common in ponds, slow 
streams, and canals. It prefers a muddy or sandy bottom 
where it can sink until only the extreme posterior dorsal edge 
is exposed above the mud and sand. It is easily kept in the 
laboratory throughout the year. For observation and study 
the live Mussel should be kept in an aquarium containing 
several inches of clean sand in the bottom. A stock supply 
of live Mussels may be kept in a tub or tank and if the water 
is changed once or twice per week they will not suffer for the 
want of a constant flow of fresh water. 

The Mussels intended for gross sectioning should be killed 
in an aqueous solution of 0.25 per cent, chromic acid in which 
they remain about forty-eight hours, and are then transferred 
to alcohol. Mussels intended for dissection may be killed 
by being put into cold water and slowly warmed to a tempera- 
ture of about yo° C. 

* Any species of Unio, Anodonta, or even the Quahog, will answer very well for 
this study. In the United States the general name for the Mussel is Clam, 

42 



THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 43 

LABORATORY WORK. 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
A. THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL FORM OF THE SHELL. 

(a) Observe the general shape of the shell. Note that one 
end, anterior, is more blunt than the other, posterior, 
end, and that one edge (dorsal margin) is thicker than 
the opposite (ventral margin). With the anterior end 
pointing away from you and the dorsal edge upward, 
sketch the outline of the dorsal edge and name the ends. 

(p) Of how many pieces (valves) is the shell of the Mussel 
composed ? How can you designate the valves with 
reference to their position? 

(c) Determine which is the right and which the left valve. 
Make an outline sketch of the right valve and indicate 
the anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral regions. 

B. THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE SHELL. 

(a) At the dorsal margin observe a pair of elevations 
(umbones, or beak), one on each valve. Is the umbo 
nearer the anterior or posterior end ? 

(p) Between the umbones and extending back of them note 
a smooth band (hinge-ligament). How is the ligament 
related to the valves? What function do you attribute 
to the ligament ? 

(c) Note the markings (lines of growth) on the surface of the 

valves. Describe their origin and direction. What is 
the nature of these lines, and how do you suppose 
they are formed ? Do you find any other surface 
markings ? Describe them. Sketch the left valve 
and represent the umbo, lines of growth, etc. 

(d) Observe the thin, horny membrane (periostracum) pro- 

jecting along the ventral edges of the valves (/;/). 
Do you find the periostracum in any other region (;//)? 



44 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(e) Note and describe the coloring of the valve. Make an 
outline drawing of the dorsal aspect. 

C. THE INNER SURFACE OF THE SHELL. 

(a) *Place a Mussel in water sufficient to cover it and slowly 
warm to about 40 ° C. Raise the left valve, and be- 
ginning at the ventral edge, with the handle of your 
scalpel carefully free the membrane attached to the 
inner surface of the valve. Now cut through the 
tough bodies which are attached to the valves, one 
near the anterior and one near the posterior end of 
the shell. 

(p) Note the character of the inner surface of the shell. 
Observe its texture and color. 

(c) Note the form and structure of the hinge ligament. 

Press the valves together and then release them and 
note the result. What is the function of the hinge 
ligament ? Examine its structure carefully to deter- 
mine how it performs its function. 

(d) In the anterior region of the dorsal edge of the right 

valve note an irregular projection (hinge "tooth"), 
and a little distance back of this structure note another 
of very different form. Can you find a mate for each 
of these structures on the left valve ? 

(<?) Compare the anterior tooth (cardinal tooth) with the one 
farther back (lateral tooth). How do they differ? Are 
the mates of the cardinal teeth alike? Are those 
of the lateral teeth alike ? 

(/) What function do you attribute to the hinge teeth? 
Why? Sketch each pair. 

(g) Near the anterior end of the valve, note a scar-like struc- 

*In order to economize the time of the class, the instructor should prepare the Mussels 
in advance. 



THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 45 

ture (anterior adductor impression) where a large muscle 
has been attached, and a similar one near* the poste- 
rior end of the valve (posterior adductor impression). 

(h) In each muscle scar observe (m) the circular markings, 
lines of growth. Sketch a muscle scar and show these 
lines. 

(i) A short distance from the ventral edge and extending 
parallel with it, note a boundary line (pallial line). 
Where are the ends of this line? Sketch. 

D. THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE SHELL. 

(a) Take a piece of shell and examine (m) the broken edge. 

How many kinds of layers can you distinguish? 
(6) Is the structure in each layer the same? Compare the 

relative thickness of the layers. Sketch the broken 

edge. 

(c) Put a small bit ,of shell into a test-tube and add a few 

drops of acid (at the sink.) Note the result. What do 
you infer? 

(d) Examine a shell which has been exposed to great heat, 

i. e., burnt. What do you observe? 

E. — EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF THE BODY IN OPENED SHELL. 

(a) In a specimen with the left valve removed, note the gen- 
eral appearance of the body. Note the character ot 
the body-wall. Identify it in the different regions. 
Which side of the body is exposed? 

{/?) Note the whitish circular structures, one near the anterior 
(anterior adductor muscle) and the other (posterior 
adductor muscle) near the posterior end of the body. 
What corresponding structure did you find in the 
valves? 

(c) What relation between these muscles and the muscle 



46 ANIMAL TYPES. 

scars do you infer? What function do you attribute 
to the adductor muscles? 

(d) Note the flap of membrane (left mantle-lobe) which cov- 

ers the left side of the body. With your forceps 
gently lift it by its ventral edge and trace and describe 
its free edge. Sketch the outline of the mantle and 
indicate the position of the adductor muscles. 

(e) Note the right mantle-lobe. Is it anywhere attached to 

the left lobe? If so, where? 
(/) Lift the edge of the right mantle and note the line of 

attachment to the shell. What is this boundary line? 
(g) At the posterior end of the mantle note the fringed 

edges (siphons) of the mantle. How are the two 

mantles related in this region? Examine (m) the dark 

tips (tentacular processes) on the siphons. Sketch the 

siphons, representing the processes. 
(k) With your forceps lift the left lobe and note the space 

(pallial, or mantle cavity) between it and the right lobe. 
(/) Note how far dorsally the mantle is free from the body, 

or the extent of the pallial cavity. 

F. THE ORGANS LYING IN THE PALLIAL CAVITY. 

(a) With your scissors carefully trim away the mantle along 
its line of attachment to the body, beginning at the 
anterior adductor muscle. Make a sketch locating the 
muscles and representing the course and position of 
the cut edge of the mantle. This cut edge represents 
the dorsal boundary of the pallial cavity. 

{b) Note the membranous structures, gills, which are 
attached to the body along the dorsal region of the 
pallial cavity. 

(c) Play a stream of water from your pipette upon the gills 
and cause them to float and separate so that you may 



THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 47 

observe their exact form and relation. Observe their 
attachment and relation to the body. How can you des- 
ignate them with reference to their position? 

(d) With your forceps carefully lift the upper (left outer gill) 

and observe and note its size and shape ? Which 
edge is attached and which edges are free ? 

(e) Lay the outer gill back and lift the lower (left inner gill) 

and note its size and shape. How are the two gills 
related ? Now lay them into their natural position. 
Which is the larger, and in what directions ? Make 
an outline sketch of them in their natural position. 

(/) Examine (in) the surface of the outer gill and sketch a 
portion of it. Examine (lp) a microscopic prepara- 
tion of cross sections of the gill. Sketch. 

(g) Just below the anterior adductor, observe (in) a pair of 
small membranes (labial palpi ? or palps). Move them 
slightly with your forceps, or play the pipette upon 
them and note their position, shape, and relation. 
Designate the palps as you did the gills. 

(h) At the anterior end, how is each palp related to its mate 
on the other side of the body? 

(/) Between the outer and inner palps, at their extreme 

anterior ends, search (in) for a small opening, the 

mouth. Insert bristle. What do you suppose is the 

function of the palps ? Sketch the palps and indicate 

the position of the mouth. 

(J) Observe the large firm structure (foot) lying below the 
left gills and palps. Note its shape and sketch its 
outline. Name the organs which you have thus far 
observed in the pallial cavity. 

(k) Note that the part of the pallial cavity which extends 
from the base of the gills ventrally (branchial 
chamber) is more or less separated by the gills and 



4^ ANIMAL TYPES. 

foot into several compartments. How many com- 
partments in the region of the foot ? How many 
back of the foot ? 

(I) Observe that at the posterior end of the gills the right 
and left mantle lobes meet and form a longitudinal 
partition through the siphon region. This partition 
thus forms an upper space or tube (exhalent, or cloacal 
siphon) and a lower (inhalent, or branchial siphon). 
(pi) Which siphon connects with the branchial chamber? 
Which connects with the cloacal chamber ? 

(n) In the cloacal siphon just back of the posterior adduc- 
tor, note a small opening, anus. 

(o) Make careful drawings of the different views of the 
valves and of the Mussel lying in the shell. Write a 
description of the Mussel as far as now studied. 

* INTERNAL ANATOMY. 
G. — THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

(a) In the dorsal region of the body, between the hinge 

ligament and the base of the gills, observe the outline 
of a longitudinal cavity (pericardial cavity) protected 
only by a delicate portion of the body wall. With 
your scissors carefully cut away this delicate membrane 
as far as the anterior ends of the gills and back to the 
posterior adductor muscle. This somewhat triangular 
opening exposes the pericardial cavity. 

(b) In the central region of the pericardial cavity, observe 

the pale muscular heart consisting of three divisions 
of which two are readily seen. Examine first the 
elongated thick-walled sac (ventricle) lying in the 

* The student should be impressed with the fact that although a valve or exoskeleton of 
me animal has been removed, yet his study up to this point has been external to the true body 
wall. 



THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 49 

middle of the cavity. Note that it is somewhat coni- 
cal, its smaller end extending forward and the larger 
bi-lobed end backward. 

{c) Now observe a thin-walled, triangular sac (left auricle) hav- 
ing its apex connected with the lateral region of the 
ventricle and its base extending along the base of the 
gills. By carefully lifting the ventricle, a portion of a 
similar structure (right auricle) may be seen on the 
opposite side of the body. The auricles receive 
aerated blood from the gills and convey it to the ven- 
tricle, which in turn by its contraction sends the blood 
to all parts of the system. 

{d) Trace the anterior end of the heart forward and observe 
that it gradually becomes a firm-walled tube (anterior 
aorta) which lies along the side of a larger tube, intes- 
tine. The anterior aorta conveys aerated blood from 
the ventricle to the "foot," viscera and the anterior 
region of the body. At the posterior end of the ven- 
tricle observe a similar blood vessel (posterior aorta) 
which divides into right and left branches. This 
vessel supplies aerated blood to the posterior regions 
of the body. * Make a careful sketch of the pericar- 
dial cavity, showing the heart, aortas and intestine. 

(e) Examine blood corpuscles, either fresh, which may be 
taken from the auricle by means of a pipette, or in a 
permanent preparation. Note the form and size and 
color of the corpuscles. Sketch. 

H. — THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 

(a) Beginning at the mouth, determine the course and 
regions of the alimentary canal. Insert a seeker into 

♦The student should have an opportunity to see the pulsations of the heart in a live Mus- 
sel. For this demonstration the valve should be removed as described in the foregoing direc- 
ections (p. 44) and the animal kept under water. 



50 ANIMAL TYPES. 

the mouth and pass it in a dorsal direction as far as it 
will easily go. Now with your scissors slit open this 
region of the alimentary canal, (Esophagus, and note 
its position and length. 

{p) Note the enlargement, stomach, at the inner end of 
the oesophagus. Carefully examine the shape and size 
of the stomach. Along its ventral wall, seek a small 
opening which leads obliquely down and backward 
into another portion of the alimentary canal, intes- 
tine. Use the seeker to guide you in the direction 
of the intestine. Now slit open this portion of the 
intestine. Make a sketch of the alimentary canal 
from the mouth to this point, and develop it as you 
proceed to reveal the direction and position of the 
remaining portions of the canal. 

(e) Observe a lobed gland, liver, surrounding the stomach 
and a portion of the oesophagus. Represent the liver 
in your sketch. . 

(d) Carefully trace the intestine to its entrance into the 
anterior end of the pericardial cavity which begins 
just back * of the stomach. Note whether the diam- 
eter of the tube or the thickness of its wall has varied. 

(e) Trace the remaining portion of the alimentary canal 
(rectum) horizontally through the pericardial cavity, 
and observe that it seems to enter the anterior region 
of the ventricle. Carefully dissect away the ventricle, 
which really passes around the sides and over the 
rectum. Bring up your sketch to this point. 
(/) Trace the rectum from the posterior end of the peri- 
cardial cavity, and observe that it passes along over 
the dorsal region of the posterior adductor muscle, 
and then obliquely downward, and opens through a 
small slit, anus, into the cloacal chamber. 



THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 5 1 

(g) Examine a transverse section through the body of the 

Mussel in the region of the "foot" and identify all 

the structures which you have now learned. Make a 

careful sketch of this section. 

(h) Examine (lp) preparations of the young stages, or larvae 

(glochidia) of the Mussel. Sketch. 
(z) Write a careful description of the anatomy of the 
Mussel from your notes and sketches, and make 
drawings of the alimentary canal and circulatory 
system. 

OTHER WORK. 
i. General view of the morphology and physiology of the 
Mussel. 

2. The significance of the absence of appendages and the 

unsegmented body in the Mussel. 

3. The life -history and habits of the Mussel. 

4. The general characteristics of the Oyster, Snail, Squid, 

Cuttlefish and Nautilus with comparisons. 

5. The characteristics of Bryozoa and the Ascidia. 

6. Oyster culture and the economic interests in the Mol- 

lusca. 

7. Characteristics and the classes of Mollusca. 

COMPARATIVE REVIEW ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE INVERTE- 
BRATE TYPES. 

It is important at this point that the student should take a 
thorough review on the invertebrate types, and that this 
should embrace not only his laboratory work upon these types 
but also his lectures and collateral reading included under the 
head of Othei- Work. 

1. Comparative review of the general external appearance 

and the habits of the invertebrate types of animals. 

2. The hard parts or exoskeletons, — spicules, spines and 



52 ANIMAL TYPES. 

ossicles, setae, chitinous shells and bristles, calcareous 
shells. 

3. The organs of digestion and assimilation, forms of pre- 

hension, digestion in the simple cell, in the special- 
ized cell, the enteron or primitive alimentary canal, 
the true alimentary canal, the more highly specialized 
alimentary canal, the glands aiding in the process of 
digestion. 

4. The organs of respiration, — by means of general sur- 

face; specialized regions; tracheae; gills. 

5. The organs of circulation, — in the simple cell; in an 

aggregation of simple cells ; true blood vessels, a heart 
and arteries ; lacunae and veins ; true capillaries and 
a closed system; the simple " arterial heart." 

6. The muscular system; — contractility as a characteristic 

property of protoplasm ; specialized muscle processes ; 
muscle fibres; muscles and a complex system. 

7. The sense organs; — sensation in the animalcule; spe- 

cialized nerve fibres ; nerves and ganglia; specialized 
nerve centres ; organs of sight ; organs of hearing. 

8. Reproduction; — simple cell division: budding; special- 

ization of two kinds of cells in the same animal ; 
gonads, distinct sexes. The course of development 
from the ovum. 

9. A general view of the gradual advance from the simple 

to the complex in structure, and from the simple to 
the highly specialized in function. 

References. — 31— 43 — 44 — 79 — 80 — 88 — 89 — 91 — 106— 115 — 116— 120 
— 122 — 124 — 126 — 129 — 140. 



STUDY IX. 
A STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 

PERCA FLAVESCENS* 
As an example of the simpler vertebrated type, having a true internal skeleton. 

Material Required. — ( I ) Live minnows or any small fish in an aqua- 
rium ; (2) a supply of fresh Perch *f; (3) a dissection showing the digestive 
and circulatory systems ; (4) a dissection of the central nervous system; (5) 
a mounted endo-skeleton of the Perch ; (6) a supply of disarticulated bones ; 
(7) microscopical preparations of tissues ; (8) preparations showing the 
principal stages in the development of the egg. 

Habitat. 

The Common Perch inhabits the streams and lakes gener- 
ally throughout the northern regions of the United States. 
It is an important food-fish, and may be obtained from the 
market during all seasons of the year. The River Perch 
spawns in the Spring, depositing its eggs in large tubular, 
zigzag masses. The young (small fry) hatch in from two to 
four weeks, the period varying with the temperature of the 
water 

LABORATORY WORK. 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
A. THE GENERAL FORM OF THE BODY. 

(a) Note the outline of the body as seen from the lateral 
aspect. As seen from the dorsal aspect. Make sketches 

*This guide will serve quite as well for the study of any Fresh -water Perch or Sea 
Perch, and will also answer fairly well for a Bass. 

fDuring warm weather the fish should be kept on ice when not in use. For general study 
alcoholic specimens are not so desirable. 

53 



54 ANIMAL TYPES. 

{del. 2 f ) representing these outlines. To what does 
its form seem to be adapted? 

(b) If the body is narrower between the lateral aspects than 

between the dorsal and ventral, the fish is said to be 
compressed; if vice versa, it is said to be flattened. 
Which is true of the perch ? 

(c) Take the following measurements in centimetres : 

(i) Length, from tip of snout to base of tail fin; 
(2) Depth, the greatest distance between dorsal and 
ventral edges ; (3) Width, the greatest thickness 
between lateral aspects ; (4) Length of head, from tip 
of snout to posterior tip of the flap situated on the 
side of the head. What are the relative lengths of 
head and body ? 
(d) Note the general shape of the head. Observe the relation 
of the head to the body. Is there a neck ? • 

B. THE APPENDAGES. 

(a) Observe the fan-like structures (fins) extending along the 

dorsal edge of the body. With your forceps stretch 
them open. Are they alike in shape and size ? 

(b) Observe the bony structures (fin-rays) which constitute 

the skeleton or frame work of the fin and determine 
its shape. 

(c) Examine the anterior fin (anterior dorsal) and observe 

that its fin-rays are hard and stiff, and consist of only; 
one piece (spinous, or inarticulated rays). How many 
spinous rays are there in the anterior dorsal fin ? Do 
you find any other kind of ray ? 

(d) Examine the other dorsal fin (posterior dorsal) and 

observe the character of its fin-rays. Bend them with 
your fingers and examine (m) their structure, and note 
that these (soft, or articulated rays) are of a different 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 55 

kind. How many soft rays do you find in the poste- 
rior dorsal ? Are there any spinous rays ? 
(e) Compare the soft rays with the spinous rays and note at 
least three differences. The soft rays of some fishes 
are composed of an elastic substance (cartilage) which 
represents bone in an incomplete state of develop- 
ment. Are any of the rays in the Perch cartilaginous ? 

(/) Examine the membrane which constitutes a part of the 
fin. How is it related to the fin-rays with reference to 
position? Stretch open the dorsal fins and sketch 
them. 

(g) Examine the fin at the posterior end of the body, caudal 
fin. Spread it out and note its general shape. Are 
its dorsal and ventral lobes symmetrical (homocercal) 
in every respect or does the back-bone seem to 
extend into the upper lobe and so render the external 
appearance of the tail unsymmetrical (heterocercal) ? 

(h) How many and what kind of fin-rays do you find in the 
caudal fin ? Make an outline sketch of the caudal fin. 

(i) Examine the fin (anal fin) on the ventral edge of the 
body just in front of the caudal fin. Note the num- 
ber and kind of rays. Sketch. 

(j) Note that all the fins which you have already examined 
are in the median line of the body (median fins) and 
extend in a vertical plane, that they occur singly and 
not in pairs, there being only one of each kind. 

(&) Observe a pair of fins (pectoral fins) one on each side of 
the body, just back of the head. Examine to ascer- 
tain the number and kinds of rays in each. Sketch. 

(/) Observe another pair of fins (ventral fins), situated 
farther back and more nearly on the ventral region of 
the body. Ascertain the number and kinds of fir- 
rays. Sketch one of the ventral fins. 



56 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(ni) The pectoral fins in the fishes are supposed to be homo- 
logons to the wings of the bird, or the fore-legs of a 
higher animal. Are they also analogous to these 
appendages ? Give your reason. Explain the homo- 
logy and analogy of the ventral fins. 

C. — THE EYES. 

(a) Note and describe the exact location of the eyes. Iden- 

tify and examine the eye sockets (orbits) and eye -ball. 

(b) Observe the bony walls of the socket, and note the 

small bone (ante-orbital) in front, and one below (sub- 
orbital) forming this wall. Sketch (X 2) outline of a 
socket and these bones. 

(c) With your forceps, touch the edge of the eye-ball at 

different points and observe its free motion (range o:f 
vision). Compare the range of vision in the Perch 
with that of higher animals and man. 

(d) Observe the dark circular space (pupil) in the eye-ball. 
Note the colored membrane surrounding the pupil 
(iris). Describe its color in the Perch. 
(e) What is the pupil of the eye ? Its color and why ? 
Sketch the eye-ball with iris and pupil. 

(/) Observe the transparent outer coat, cornea, over the iris 
and pupil. Note its smooth surface. 

(g) Can you find eye-lids or eye-lashes in the Perch ? 
Demonstrate that the eye-ball may be slightly pro- 
truded and retracted. What means of protection of 
the eye has the Perch ? 

D. THE NOSTRILS. 

(a) Identify the nostrils (nares) and note their number, exact 

location and arrangement. 

(b) Examine with the bristle to determine their internal 

relation. Are any connected ? If so, which ones ? 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 57 

With bristle carefully determine whether the nostrils 
open through the roof of the mouth. 
(c) Compare the nostrils in the Perch with those of man. 
What inference do you draw concerning the function 
of the nostrils in the Perch ? 

E. THE MOUTH. 

(a) Identify the jaws and note the method and extent of 

opening. Note the shape of the mouth when open 
and when closed. 

(b) Observe the large openings (gill-openings) along the side 

of the head. Pass your forceps through the mouth 
and out at one of these openings and note its extent. 

(c) Observe the bones in the upper lip (pre-maxillaries). 

Move them slightly with your ringers and determine 
their number and shape. Touch them with the tip of 
your little finger. Have they teeth ? Sketch a pre- 
maxillary (X 2). 

(a 7 ) Observe the bones just back of the pre-maxillaries (max- 
illaries), and note their number and shape. Have they 
teeth? Sketch a maxillary (X 2). 

(<?) Are there any bones in man which are similar in structure 
and position, homologous, to the pre-maxillaries in the 
Perch ? Are there any which are similar in function, 
analogous ? Name them. 

(/) With the tip of your little finger feel in the roof of the 
mouth, and find a patch of fine teeth. Note the posi- 
tion of the bonye (vomer) which bears these teeth. 

(g) Note the bones (palatines) along the sides and a little 
way back of the vomer. Have they teeth ? 

(h) Study the shape of the lower jaw when the mouth 
is wide open. When it is closed. Of how many 
bones does it consist ? Note the anterior bone 



58 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(dentary) of the lower jaw. Are these teeth on the 
dentary? Sketch (X 2). 
(/) Examine the tongue. Note its shape. Can it be pro- 
truded beyond jaws ? 

F. THE GILL-COVERS. 

(a) Observe the large flap, or gill cover (operculum) along 
the side of the head. Note its shape and see which 
edges are free and which attached to the head. Note 
the large gill-opening between its posterior edge and 
the head. 

(&) Observe the delicate bones of the operculum. Note the 
shape of the one extending farthest back (opercle) and 
ending in a spine. Note the shape of the one (sub- 
opercle) just below the opercle. And the one (inter- 
opercle) just in front of the sub-opercle. Note the bone 
(pre-opercle) in front of the opercle and observe its 
peculiarities. 

(c) Note the patch of scales in the region (cheek) just in front 

of the pre-opercle. Now make a diagram of the en- 
tire operculum, showing the position and shape of the 
bones. 

(d) Note a tan-like structure (branchiostegal apparatus) along 

the ventral edge of the operculum. With your forceps 
spread it open. What does it resemble ? Of what is 
it composed ? Where is it attached to the head ? 

{e) Note the skeleton (branchiostegal rays) of this apparatus. 

How do the rays vary in size ? 
(/) Note the membrane (branchiostegal membrane) which cov- 
ers these rays. Now make a sketch of the branchios- 
tegal apparatus. 

(g) Observe the narrow -pointed region (isthmus) of the body 
between the branchiostegal apparatus of the two sides. 
Sketch 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 59 

G. — THE GILLS. 

(a) Raise the left operculum and observe the red structures, 

gills, beneath it. With your forceps lift the upper 

or first (anterior) gill. Where is it attached ? 

(B) Determine the central bony arch (branchial, or gill-arch) 

supporting the gill. Is it composed of several pieces 

or of a single piece? 

(c) Examine (m) the red fringes (gill-filaments) along the 

edge of the gill-arch, and designate their exact posi- 
tion. 

(d) Note the arrangement and exact position of the teeth- 

like structure (gill-rakers) along the arches. Note at 
least two additional facts about the gill-rakers. 

(e) Depress the tongue with your finger and note the effect 

on the gill-rakers. 
(/) Observe a red line, blood-vessel, along the base of the 
gill-filaments. What do you assume to be the 
function of the gill-arch? Of the gill-rakers? Of 
the filaments ? Make a sketch of a complete gill 

(X2). 

(g) With your forceps lift the next, or second gill, then the 
next and so on. How many gills do you find ? How 
many pairs has the Perch ? 

(K) Compare the gills on the same side and note the points 
of difference. 

(/) Note the large space (first gill-cleft) between the oper- 
culum and the first gill. Where is the second gill- 
cleft ? The third, etc.? How many gill-clefts are 
there ? Compare their sizes. 

(/) On the inner surface of the operculum in the dorsal 
region, note a red spot (false-gill). 

(k) Remove a small tuft of gill-filaments and examine it 
under the microscope (lp). Sketch. 



60 ANIMAL TYPES. 

H. THE SCALES. 

(a) Observe the bony covering (scales), the exoskeleton of the 
body. Note their arrangement. Show by sketch. 

(&) With your forceps pull out a scale from the ventral 
region of the body. Examine (ni) it carefully and study 
the radiating and concentric markings, s tries, on its 
outer surface. 

(V) Note that the scales (ctenoid scales) have one scalloped 
edge, and fine, straight comb-like teeth on the opposite 
edge. In some fishes the edges of the scales are 
smooth (cycloid scales). 

(d) Note a distinct line (lateral line) extending along the 

sides of the body. Where are the ends of this line ? 

(e) Pull out and carefully examine a scale from the lateral 

line and note any peculiarity. Sketch. What is the 
true nature of the lateral line ? Compare a lateral 
line scale with one from some other region. 

(/) Examine (m) the delicate membrane, epidermis, which 
covers the scales. How is it related to the scales ? 
Make a diagram representing a longitudinal sectional 
view of scales and membrane. 

(g) Pull out a scale from a black spot and observe its color. 
Take one from a white or yellow spot and compare 
Where is the color, pigment, of the spots ; in the 
membrane or in the scale ? 

{h) Make an outline drawing of a Perch, natural size, show- 
ing the left lateral aspect. Write a description of the 
external morphology from your notes and sketches. 

THE INTERNAL ANATOMY. 
I,— THE BODY-CAVITIES. 

(a) Just in front of the anal fin, note an opening through 
the body wall, the external opening of the intestine, 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 6 1 

anus. Hold the fish in the palm of your left hand 
with its ventral edge upward and anterior end point- 
ing away from you. About half an inch in front of 
the anal opening thrust the point of one of the blades 
of your scissors through the body-wall and cut along 
the median line forward into the isthmus, being care- 
ful not to insert the blades so far as to injure the 
internal organs. Now lay the fish into the dissecting 
tray with its head pointing to your left and its ventral 
edge toward you. With your forceps lift the cut edge 
of the left body -wall, and beginning at the point of 
the first incision trim away as much of the body-wall as 
possible without injuring the organs. Lay this flap 
forward or remove it entirely. 

(b) Note the form of the body cavity which is now laid open, 

Observe the silvery membrane (peritoneum) lining the 
body cavity. 

(c) Trace the outline or boundary of the body cavity as seen 

from the ventral aspect. At its anterior limit, observe 
the membranous cross -partition (false diaphragm) 
which separates the larger, or abdominal body cavity 
from a smaller cavity, pericardial cavity, in front. Note 
the shape of the pericardial cavity and make a dia- 
gram showing the outline of the body cavities (X %). 

J. — THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

(a) Take a general view of the organs in the abdominal cav- 

ity. Move them slightly to ascertain their relation 
and connections. Identify as nearly as you can. 

(b) Study the alimentary canal, beginning at its anterior 

end. Pass a probe back through the mouth into the 
straight oesophagus which leads into the abdominal 



62 ANIMAL TYPES. 

cavity, and locate the end of the probe back of the 
diaphragm. Now, without breaking or cutting any 
tissue, trace the alimentary canal from this point. 
(V) Examine the large stomach. Turn the fish and exam- 
ine it also on its right side. Note the shape of 
the stomach. Find the point where the stomach ends 
and the smaller portion of the alimentary canal (small 
intestine) begins. From which part of the stomach 
does the intestine arise? Make an outline sketch of 
the alimentary canal up to this point, disregarding for 
the present any organs attached to it or lying upon it. 
(d) Now trace the small intestine along its course and loops 
to the point where it becomes larger and more nearly 
straight. Represent the small intestine in your last 

sketch. 

t 
(e) Trace the straight portion of the intestine (large intestine) 

to its external opening, anus, and complete your sketch 

of the alimentary canal. 
(/) Observe the thin membrane, mesentery, which holds the 

intestine in place. In which region of the abdominal 

cavity is the mesentery attached ? 
(g) Study the large reddish organ, liver, lying in the anterior 

region of the abdominal cavity and chiefly on the left 

side of the median line. How many lobes has the liver? 

Where is it attached? 
(A) On the posterior surface of the liver, observe a greenish 

thin- walled sac (bile sac, or bile bladder). Can you find 

any connection between the bile sac and the intestine? 

Prick the bile sac with your dissecting needle and see 

the greenish liquid, bile, flow out. What is the function 

of the liver? Of what use to the perch is the bile? 

Sketch the liver and bile sac. 
(i) Study the pointed, worm-like tubes (pyloric caeca) im- 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 63 

bedded in fat at the junction of the stomach and 
intestine. Carefully clear away the fat to expose the 
caeca. Snip off a caecum and carefully examine (m) it. 
What is the nature of it? How many caeca are there? 
Where are they connected. Sketch. 
(/) Observe a small, reddish-brown body (spleen) a little 
way back along the intestine and in the mesentery. 
Has it any connection with the intestine? Sketch. 

K. THE REPRODUCTIVE AND EXCRETORY ORGANS. 

(a) In the posterior region of the abdominal cavity, are the 
gonads or reproductive organs. In the Perch, as in 
all higher animals, the sexes are separate, hence only 
ovaries or spermaries exist in the same individual. 

(p) In the female Perch, the gonad (?) is a single struc- 
ture, varying much in size with the season.* During 
the spawning season it may occupy the larger por- 
tion of the abdominal cavity. Note its color. 
Examine the ova (ni). Sketch a small patch of ova. 

(c) Can you find a delicate membranous tube, oviduct, con- 

nected with the ovary? Where does it lead? Make 
an outline sketch of the ovary. 

(d) In the male Perch, the gonads (8) consist of a pair of 

whitish structures in the dorsal posterior region of the 
abdominal cavity. Trace a small tube (sperm-duct) 
from each to an external opening just back of the 
anus. 

(e) Make a careful sketch of the gonad, spermary or ovary, 

as the case may be, including the tubes leading away 
from it. 
(/) In the dorsal region of the body cavity observe a white 
membranous sac (air-bladder). Carefully examine its 

*Note. — If the female is studied during the spawning season it will be necessary to 
ycamine and remove the ovary before the digestive organs can be studied. 



64 ANIMAL TYPES. 

form and determine whether there is a small tube 
(pneumatic tube) connecting the air-bladder with the 
anterior region of the stomach or the oesophagus. 
Make an outline sketch of the air-bladder. 
(g) x\bove the air-bladder against the roof of the abdominal 
cavity, observe a pair of dark, slender bodies (kidneys). 
Note their form and position. Trace the left kidney 
back to a pinkish sac (urinary bladder) in the posterior 
end of the abdominal cavity. Can you find its exter- 
nal opening just back of the anal opening. Sketch 
the left kidney, including the urinary bladder. 

L. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION. 

(a) * Examine the reddish, tubular structure, the heart, ex- 

tending through the middle of the pericardial cavity. 
Observe the angular portion, ventricle, located in the 
ventral and posterior region of the pericardial cavity. 
Turn it slightly to ascertain its connections. 

(b) Observe the dark irregular portion, auricle, located in 

front of the ventricle and slightly more dorsal. Note 
its shape and connection with the ventricle. 

(c) Observe the large blood-cavity (venous sinus) which 

extends back from the auricle and in front of the false- 
diaphragm. Note that the venous sinus extends 
across the pericardia] cavity, /. e. ha? two lateral 
divisions which enter the auricle. 
(a 7 ) Observe the large blood vessel (hepatic vein) which 
passes forward from the liver through the false dia- 
phragm into the pericardial cavity and enters the 
venous sinus. Can you discover any other veins 
entering the venous sinus ? Make a diagram of 
the venous sinus, showing its connections. 

* Injected specimens should be used whenever it is possible. Students can be directed to 
inject their own specimens, two working together, or several students may inject specimens 
for the entire class. 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 65 

(e) Observe the light-colored, conical structure (arterial 
bulb) in front of the ventricle. Note its continuation 
forward into a large blood vessel (branchial aorta). 
Trace the branchial aorta forward and note the 
branches (branchial arteries) which it gives off right 
and left to the gill. Make a careful sketch showing 
all the compartments of the heart and the branchial 
aorta and its branches. Ventral view {del 4'). 

(/) Select one of the gills on the left side and carefully trace 
its artery along the base of the gill-filaments. At the 
dorsal ends of the gill arches, observe that this 
branchial vessel constitutes a branch leading into a 
larger longitudinal blood vessel (dorsal aorta). The 
dorsal aorta receives aerated blood from all the gills 
and conveys it into all parts of the body, and extends 
back along the ventral side of the backbone to the 
base of the tail. Make a sketch showing the relation 
of the branchial artery to the gill arch and its con- 
tinuation into the dorsal aorta. 

M. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

(a) Remove* the head from the body by cutting across the 
anterior point of the isthmus and through the back- 
bone in the region of the gill openings. Carefullv 
cut and scrape away all the muscles on the head.t 
Now with a sharp scalpel slice off the upper wall of 
the bony case (skull or cranium) inclosing the brain. 
[if) Observe the white or grayish organ (brain) in the 
cranium. Note that it is composed of several lobes, 
How many of these lobes can you find? Do they 
occur in pairs or singly? Does the brain fill up the 

* If preferred, the head may remain attached to the body. 

t The study of the central nervous system can be carried on to better advantage with 
material which has been hardened in alcohol or chromic acid. The skull and portions of the 
back bone may be kept in alcohol several days before studying the brain and spinal cord. 



66 ANIMAL TYPES. 

entire cavity? What do you suppose is the function 
of the loose tissue (cellular tissue) surrounding the 
brain? 

(c) Observe the large rod -like structure (spinal cord) extending 
back from the brain through the chain of bones (spinal 
column) which constitute the back bone. Carefully 
examine the spinal cord along its side, about an inch 
or more from the brain, to see whether you can find 
small nerves (spinal nerves) branching from the cen- 
tral, or spinal nerve cord. 

(e) Observe the enlargement (medulla oblongata) of the an- 
terior portion of the spinal cord and the large nerves 
passing from its sides. 

(/) Note the small median, somewhat triangular, lobe of the 
brain (cerebellum) which extends back over a portion of 
the medulla oblongata. Make a careful sketch of the 
parts of the central nervous system which you have 
thus far examined, and develop it as you proceed in 
your further study of the brain. 

(g) In front of the cerebellum observe a pair of larger 
rounded lobes (optic lobes) which constitute the broad- 
est portion of the brain. Continue your sketch. 

(h) In front of the optic lobes, observe a pair of smaller, 
oval bodies (cerebral hemispheres) which meet in the 
median line. Note that the cerebral hemispheres 
taper forward into a pair of much smaller lobes (olfac- 
tory lobes) and that these continue into a pair of small 
nerves (olfactory nerves) which extend forward to the 
nasal cavities. Complete your sketch. 

(/) Below the olfactory and cerebral hemispheres, observe a 
pair of very large and conspicuous nerves (optic nerves) 
which arise from the ventral surface of the optic lobes. 
Trace one of these nerves forward to the eye, dissect- 



STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 67 

ing away any tissue necessary. See whether you can 
show that the nerve which arises from the left lobe 
passes to the right eye and the one from the right 
lobe to the left eye. Sketch (X 2). 

N. THE ENDO- SKELETON OF THE PERCH. 

(a) Examine a mounted specimen of the internal frame-work 
(endoskeleton) of the Perch. 

(p) Study the form of the back bone (vertebral column). 
Examine a separate bone of the vertebral column 
(vertebra) and note its central part (centrum) and its 
spinous projections (processes). How many processes 
has this vertebra ? Compare the dorsal (neural spine) 
with the lateral ones (ribs). About how many pairs 
of ribs has the Perch ? 

(c) Examine the anterior and posterior surfaces of a centrum 
and describe them. Sketch a vertebra as seen in an 
end view, also as seen from the left side (X 4). 

(d) Study a vertebra taken from the posterior region of the 
vertebral column. How many spinous processes has 
it? Are there any ribs? Sketch two views (X 4). 

(e) Identify the bones of the head which you formerly 
studied in their natural position. 

(/) Write a description of the anatomy of the Perch, and 
make careful drawings of the digestive, circulatory, and 
nervous systems. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. The central nervous system in the Perch. 

2. Development of the Perch from the ovum. 

3. Circulation and respiration in Fishes. 

4. The general characteristics of Amphioxus and the 

Lamprey. 



68 ANIMAL TYPES. 

5. The general characteristics of the Elasmobranch and 

Ganoid fishes. 

6. A comparative view of the exoskeletons and the endo- 

skeletons in Fishes. 

7. The chief characteristics of vertebrates. 

8. The economic and scientific interests in Fishes. 

9. The characteristics and the orders of Pisces. 

References. — 11 — 27 — 31 — 34 — 51 — 60 — 72 — 81 — 89 — 91 — 99 — 106 — 
115 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 123 — 124 — 125 — 129 — 150 — 165. 



STUDY X. 
A STUDY OF A FROG 

RAN A PIPIENS. 

As an example of the Amphibian type, and an ani7nal possessing highly 

developed limbs. 

Material Required. — (i) Live Frogs; (2) a supply of alcoholic mate- 
rial ; (3) dissections of the injected circulatory system ; (4) dissections of 
the digestive system ; (5) dissections of the central nervous system ; (6) dis- 
sections of the muscular system; (7) a mounted skeleton; (8) a set of micro- 
scopical preparations; (9) a series of stages showing the development .of 
the tadpole. 

Habitat. 

In most localities throughout the United States several 
species of Frogs are common. Any species will answer equally 
well for this study. The Frog is amphibious in its modes of 
life, living in the water and breathing by means of gills during 
its early life, and later inhabiting the land and breathing by 
means of lungs. In the spring the adult Frogs take to the 
water in ponds and ditches, where they deposit and fertilize 
their eggs. During the summer and early fall they inhabit 
the land, keeping in moist places, and returning into the 
water only for food and refuge from enemies. In the late fall, 
on the approach of cold weather, they bury themselves in the 
mud in ditches or at the bottom of the water, where they 
remain inactive and without taking food (hibernate) until the 
following spring. 

The young, known as " polliwigs," or tadpoles, are hatched 
in the water by the heat of the sun during the months of May 
and June, the exact time varying with the season and the lati- 

69 



7<D ANIMAL TYPES. 

tude of the different localities. The eggs, or spawn, which 
are gelatinous masses floating at the surface of the water, 
may be collected and hatched in laboratory aquaria. Frogs 
may be collected during the warm seasons of the year, but are 
perhaps most accessible in the fall just before they retire 
into winter quarters. They may be kept alive and in good 
condition during the winter months in a wooden box properly 
ventilated. They should be allowed to creep under a moist 
cloth, and the box should be kept in a cool, damp cellar. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. * OBSERVATIONS UPON THE LIVING FROG. 

(a) Observe a live Frog while at rest, note his sitting posture 

and the position of his hind legs. 

(b) Cause the Frog to jump, and note the process. In 

what way is it specially adapted to jumping ? Of what 
other animal is this also true ? Can you cause the 
Frog to walk or crawl ? 

(c) Observe the Frog in the water, and note its method of 

swimming. How is it specially provided for this mode 
of locomotion ? What have the Frog and Perch in 
common to facilitate their swimming ? 
(d) While the animal is at rest, observe its throat, nostrils, 
and the sides of its body. What vital or life process 
is indicated by these actions ? Observe the slow 
alternate distension and depression of your own chest. 
What vital process does this represent ? How does 
the Frog perform the process of respiration ? 
(e) Observe carefully the slight pulsations on the right and 
left of the posterior end of the backbone. What vital 
process do these movements indicate ? Place two 

* These observations may be made while the student is collecting, or they may be carried 
on in the laboratory. 



STUDY OF A FROG. 7 1 

finger tips upon the inner, thumb side of your wrist, 
and feel your pulse. What vital process do you 
observe ? 
(/) Observe the frog's eyes. Do you discover eye-lids ? 
Gently touch the eye with the point of your forceps 
and note the result. How many eye-lids for each 
eye, and where are they located when not in use ? 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. 
B. GENERAL FORM AND REGIONS OF THE BODY. 

(a) Observe the general shape and appearance of the Frog. 
Has the Frog any external constriction or boundary 
(neck) between the head and the body proper (trunk) ? 
Has it a tail ? 

(p) Note the outline of the head and trunk from the dorsal 
view. Observe the prominences over the eyes and 
the - angular projections in the hump of the back. 
Sketch the outline of the head and body from a dorsal 
view (X %). 

(e) * Observe the prevailing color of the dorsal and lateral 
regions of the Frog. Note the color markings. Of 
what color is the ventral surface of the body ? Exam- 
ine some of the pigment spots (ni) and sketch. 

C. THE HEAD. 

(a) Note the triangular shape of the head. Observe the 
form and extent of the mouth. Open it and note the 
shape of the upper and lower jaws. Are they provided 
with teeth (m)? If teeth are present, note their posi- 
tion and shape. Which bones have teeth? 

(t>) Examine the tongue. Can it be protruded beyond the 
jaws ? Note its attachment. What is peculiar about 

* The color and markings should be observed on the live Frog, if possible, and compared 
at different times. 



72 ANIMAL TYPES. 

the tongue of the Frog ? What do you suppose is its 
special function ? Compare it with that of the Perch. 
(c) Examine the eyes and compare them with those of the 
Perch. Name the points of resemblance and differ- 
ence between the eyes of the Frog and those of the 
Perch. 

(d) A little way back and below the eye, observe a thin 

portion of the skin, tympanum, or ear-drum, stretched 
over a firm ring, which outlines the external ear. 
With your needle prick a hole into the tympanum. 
Pass a tipped bristle through this pore and observe 
the points at which it appears in the mouth and the 
evident course of the tube (Eustachian tube) through 
which it has passed. 

(e) Identify the nostrils, nares, near the tip of the snout. 

How many do you find, and how are they arranged ? 
Pass a tipped bristle through one and carefully deter- 
mine whether it connects with the interior of the 
mouth. Name the points of resemblance and of dif- 
ference between the nostrils of the Frog and those of 
the Perch. 

(/) Open the mouth and in the back part of the floor 
observe a small longitudinal slit (glottis) leading into 
a tube (bronchial tube) which conveys air to and from 
the respiratory organs. 

(g) Observe (m) a small, spherical, sac-like body (brow spot) 
in the median line just in front of the eyes. This has 
a connection with an internal structure (pineal eye) of 
peculiar interest. 

D. — THE LIMBS. 

(a) Note the position of the limbs. To which fins in the 
Perch are they homologous ? Why ? 



STUDY OF A FROG. 73 

(b) Examine the anterior pair of limbs. Note that each con- 

sists of a proximal segment or arm (brachium), a fore- 
arm (ante-brachium), a hand (manus), and fingers 
(digits). 

(c) Note the number of digits in each hand and their rela- 

tive sizes. Sketch the left anterior limb and name the 
parts. 
(d) Examine the posterior limbs. Note the subdivision of 
each into segment or thigh, femur, the leg (crus), the 
foot (pes), and the toes (digits). 
(e) Note the number of digits in each foot and their rela- 
tive lengths. Which is the first toe, the inner or outer ? 
Note the membrane (web) between the digits. Sketch 
the left posterior limb, indicating and naming all its 
parts, 
(/) Compare the two pairs of limbs in the Frog, stating the 
points of resemblance and difference. What is the 
general function of the limbs ? With what structure 
in the Perch are they analogous, and why ? 
(g) Write a description of the external morphology of the 
Frog, and make careful drawings. 

*THE ENDOSKELETON. 
E. THE AXIAL SKELETON. 

(a) Study the general plan and arrangement of the con- 

nected bones in a prepared skeleton. Observe that 
one series of bones forms a main central chain (axial 
skeleton) and the other bones, consisting of the 
limb bones and the bones to which they are attached 
(appendicular skeleton) constitute another series. 

(b) Examine the axial skeleton and note that it consists of 

two principal regions, (1) the bones of the head 
(skull) and (2) the chain of bones, vertebral column. 



74 /ANIMAL TYPES. 

extending back from the skull and constituting the 
backbone. 

(c) In the skull observe the bones forming the hollow brain 

case (cranium) and the other bones (facial bones). 

(d) At the posterior end of the cranium, observe a large 

opening (occipital foramen) through which the spinal 
cord is continuous with the brain in the cranium. 
Locate some smaller openings (foramina) in the cran- 
ium through which nerves pass out from the brain. 

(e) Observe the smooth, rounded processes (occipital con- 

dyles) at the posterior end of the cranium, below and 
outside of the occipital foramen. Observe that these 
condyles form the articulation with the first vertebra 
(atlas) of the vertebral column. 

(/) Identify the premaxillary , maxillary, and dentary. Which 
of these are provided with teeth? What points of 
resemblance have these bones to the corresponding 
bones in the Perch? How many bones enter into the 
1 o we r j aw, ;;/ a n dible ? 

(g) Identify the nasal and vomer. Locate the orbit of the 
eye and note the number of bones which together 
form its boundary. 

(Ji) Examine the vertebral column. Observe that its pos- 
terior end terminates in one long, slender piece 
(urostyle). How many true vertebrae are there in front 
of the urostyle? 

(/) Sketch the dorsal view of the axial skeleton. 

(J) Examine in detail a disconnected vertebra, using any 
one between the fourth and eighth inclusive. Observe 
the centrum or body of the vertebra. Note its con- 
cave anterior face and the convex articular knob on 
its posterior face. Observe the large longitudinal 
foramen above the centrum. Note that the portion 



*< - 



STUDY OF A FROG. 75 

of the vertebra above the foramen (neural arch) con- 
tains several processes. How many processes project 
horizontally forward? How many project horizon- 
tally backward or outward, and how many median pro- 
cesses project obliquely upward and backward? 

(k) Take two vertebrae and hold them in their natural rela- 
tion. Now note the relation of the vertebrae in the 
mounted skeleton. Compare a vertebra of the Frog 
with a corresponding one of the Perch and name the 
points of resemblance and "difference. 

(/) Sketch a lateral and an anterior view of a vertebra of the 
Frog. 

F. THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON. 

(a) Observe that the bones of the anterior limbs are attached 
to an incomplete girdle of bones (pectoral arch, or 
- shoulder girdle) around the axial skeleton. 

{b) Note that on the ventral side of the body there is a com- 
plicated bony structure, situated below the position of 
the heart. This consists of (i) a median, longitudinal, 
rod-like portion (sternum) composed partly of bone 
and partly of cartilage ; (2) an anterior pair of slender 
bones (clavicles) extending laterally ; (3) a posterior pair 
of more flattened bones (coracoids) which also extend lat- 
erally and enter into the articulation at the shoulder joint. 

(c) Observe the dorsal portion of the girdle and note the 

triangular, flattened bone (scapula) which also enters 
into the articulation at the shoulder. Sketch the 
bones of the shoulder girdle and sternum. 

(d) Examine the skeleton of the fore limb, and identify the 

bones in their order, beginning with the most proxi- 
mal one, — (1) the arm bone (humerus); (2) the con- 
solidated bones of the fore-arm (radio-ulnar) corre- 



76 ANIMAL TYPES. 

sponding to two distinct bones in the arm of man ; 
(3) the wrist bones (carpi) consisting of two rows of 
three each ; (4) the hand bones (meta-carpi) consisting 
of five bones, and (5) the finger bones (phalanges) 
arranged in series. With which bones does the radio- 
ulnar articulate? The humerus? 

(e) Place the skeleton of the hand, palm down, and the 
shorter digits forward or inward and note the number. 
Now look for a very small digit (thumb) normally 
under the skin. 

(/) Examine the second, third, fourth, and fifth fingers. 
Which is the longest digit and how do the others rank? 
How many segments or phalanges has each digit? 
Sketch a fore limb and name the bones included. 

(g) Observe the relation of the hind limbs to the axial skel- 
eton. Note that they are attached to a set of bones 
(pelvic arch or hip girdle) which articulate directly 
with the vertebral column, and with the ninth verte- 
bra (sacrum), form a complete girdle. Observe that the 
ventral portion (pelvis) of the hip girdle consists of 
several united bones and that these form the articulation 
with the leg. Sketch the hip girdle. 

(Ji) Examine the skeleton of a hind limb and identify (1) the 
thigh-bone, femur ; (2) the shin-bone (tibio-fibula) \ 
corresponding to the tibia and fibula in man ; (3) the 
ankle bones (tarsi) ; (4) the bones of the foot (meta- 
tarsi) ; and (5) the bones of the toes (phalanges). 
With which bones does the tibio-fibula articulate? 
The femur? 

(/) Note that the inside digit (hallux), corresponding to the 
first or great toe in man is the smallest in the Frog. 
How do the digits rank in length? How many seg- 
ments or phalanges has each? 



STUDY OF A FROG. 77 

(/) Sketch a hind limb and name the different bones 
included. 

. THE BODY -WALL AND MUSCLES. 

(a) Pin the animal down ventral side up and the head point- 

ing to your left. With your forceps lift the skin in 
the posterior region of the abdomen (pelvic region) 
and with scissors cut forward along the median line to 
the tip of the lower jaw, being careful not to cut into 
the body-wall. Observe the very loose attachment of 
the skin to the muscular body-wall. 

(b) From the beginning of this incision, cut transversely 

through the skin just in front of the left thigh. Make 
a similar transverse incision just back of the left arm. 
Now draw this flap of skin away and pin it down, and 
as you do this note the chambers (lymph cavities) 
between the skin and the muscles of the body-wall. 

(c) Observe the muscle bands in the body-wall of the trunk. 

Note the median longitudinal band of muscles (rectus 
abdominis) in the form of a slender arrow-head. In 
which direction is the apex? At the anterior end of 
the rectus abdominis, observe on each side a wing-like 
band (pectoralis major) extending obliquely forward 
to the anterior limb. What is the function of the 
pectoralis major? Sketch these muscles. 

(d) Observe a vein (anterior abdominalis) extending longi- 

tudinally along the median line through the rectus 
abdominis. Note also on the inner surface of the 
flap of skin a prominent vein (great cutaneous) run- 
ning forward. 
(e) Remove the skin entirely from the left hind limb as far 
distally as the foot, and study the form and arrange- 
ment of the muscles. Separate some of these mus-' 



7^ ANIMAL TYPES. 

cles by carefully tearing the connective tissue which 
binds them together, but leaving them attached at 
each end. 

(/) Note the thickest region (belly) of one of the dissected 
muscles ; also the end (origin) attached to the part less 
movable and the opposite end (insertion) attached to 
the more movable part of the leg. Observe the dense 
glistening substance (tendon) at the ends of the muscle. 

(g) Can you determine the special function of any of these 
muscles ? Sketch one or two muscles of the leg. 

(h) With your forceps lift the body-wall in the pelvis and 
with scissors cut along the median line to the lower 
jaw, being careful not to injure the organs lying 
beneath. In the region of the anterior limbs it will 
be necessary to cut through a thin bone, the sternum. 
Also cut the wall right and left transversely in the 
pelvic region and pin back the flaps and anterior 
limbs to the fullest extent. 

H.—DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

(a) Note the general arrangement of the internal organs. 

Pass the blow-pipe through the mouth into the 
oesophagus, and inflate the stomach. Note its position 
and shape. 

(b) Trace the course of the alimentary canal and identify 

the oesophagus, stomach, and intestine. Sketch the 
oesophagus and stomach. 

(c) Note the convoluted portion of the intestine, being the 

small intestine, and the short, straight portion, the 
large intestine. Note the color, shape, and position of 
each. Note the enlargement of the intestine (cloaca) 
near the anus. Represent these portions of the 
alimentary canal in your last sketch. 



STUDY OF A FROG. 79 

(d) Identify the liver, a large, brown, two-lobed mass. Note 

its position. Which is the larger lobe? Which lobe 
is subdivided? Identify the bile-sac and its duct, 
between the lobes of the liver. Sketch these organs. 

(e) Identify the spleen, a small red structure which is located 

in the mesentery in the median line just in front of 
the large intestine. Has it any connection with the 
intestine? 
(/) Observe a V-shaped, pale yellowish mass (pancreas), 
located in the mesentery along the first bend of the 
intestine. Can you find any connection between the 
pancreas and the alimentary canal? Add a sketch of 
the pancreas and spleen to your sketch of the 
intestine. 

I. THE REPRODUCTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEMS. 

(a) In the female Frog, identify the gonads or ovaries, which 
are dark masses situated m the abdominal cavity to 
the right and left of the median line. In the breed- 
ing season these organs may be relatively large and 
much lobed. Identify and trace the oviducts, which are 
long coiled tubes leading from the anterior part of the 
body cavity to the cloaca. 

(J?) Observe a pair of red, elongated, flattened bodies, kidneys, 
situated along the back bone, just in front of the cloaca. 
See whether you can determine their ducts (ureters) 
leading into the cloaca. Sketch the ovaries and kidneys 
with their ducts. 

(c) In the male Frog, identify the gonads or spermaries, which 
are a pair of yellowish bodies much smaller than the 
ovaries, situated in front of or upon the anterior end of 
the kidneys. Try to identify the minute tubes leading 
into the kidneys. 



So ANIMAL TYPES. • 

(d) Observe the large bi-lobed sac (urocyst) situated just in 
front of the cloaca. If the urocyst is not easily 
observed, it may be inflated by the use of the blow-pipe. 
Sketch the gonads, kidneys, and urocyst. 

J. THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

{a) Observe the transparent oval sacs (lungs) situated along 

the sides of the oesophagus, and probably covered in 

part by the liver. 
( b) Open the mouth of the animal wide and examine the 

glottis. Note the lateral folds of membrane and the 

chamber (larynx) below them. 

(c) Insert the blow-pipe into the larynx and inflate the 

lungs. Observe that they are not very spongy, but 
more like hollow sacs. Note the short tubes (bronchi) 
which connect the lungs with the larynx. Sketch the 
respiratory organs. 

(d) What organs in the Perch are analogous to the lungs in 

the Frog? Why? 

K. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 

(a) Note the position of the heart and that it is enclosed in 

a thin -walled transparent sac (pericardium). Cut the 
pericardial sac away, taking care not to injure the 
heart or blood vessels. 

(b) Observe the thick-walled conical apex (ventricle) of the 

heart, and the darker thin-walled base (atrium). Note 
the large vessel (arterial trunk) passing obliquely over 
the atrium from the ventricle and separating into two 
branches, one right and one left, at the base of the 
heart. 

(c) Turn the apex of the heart forward and on its dorsal 

side note a dark-colored triangular sac (sinus venosus). 



STUDY OF A FROG. 8 1 

Observe two thin -walled veins (pre caval veins) which 
enter it from right and left. Note the branches form- 
ing each of these large veins. From what regions of 
the body do they bring blood? 

(d) Observe another large vein (post caval vein) entering the 
sinus venosus at its posterior angle. Trace this vein 
back from the heart and determine from what regions 
and organs of the body it brings blood. How does 
the blood from the hind limbs and the pelvis get to 
the post caval vein? Sketch the heart and its con- 
necting veins. 

(<?) Examine the branches which unite to form the arterial 
trunk, and note that each subdivides into three 
divisions for its own side of the body. Note that (i) 
the most anterior of the three (carotid arch) passes to 
the side of the pharynx and forward ; (2) the middle 
one (systemic arch) passes around the oesophagus and 
back to unite with its fellow from the other side, and 
thence to the viscera and posterior regions of the 
body and fore limbs, and (3) the posterior arch (pulmo- 
cutaneous arch) which sends branches to the lungs and 
the skin. Trace these arteries and sketch. 

(f) Carefully examine the interior of the atrium and deter- 

mine a longitudinal membranous partition which 
divides the atrium into two chambers (a right and a 
left auricle), 

(g) Make a diagram of the heart (del. 2'), showing the 

cavities and openings of vessels. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
L. — THE CENTRAL NERVOUS AXIS. 

(a) Take an alcoholic specimen and pin it under water, 
dorsal surface upward. Make a longitudinal incision 



82 ANIMAL TYPES. 

in the skin along the entire median line, loosen the 
skin and pin it back. Remove the muscles from the 
dorsal surface of the head and a short distance back 
of it. 

(p) Now insert a point of your scissors into the occipital 
foramen, and carefully cut around the outer edge of 
the roof of the cranium, and remove the bony lid to 
expose the brain. In a similar manner expose the 
spinal cord for a short distance back of the head. 
The nervous axis now in view (cerebro- spinal axis) con- 
stitutes the principal portions of the nervous system. 

(c) Observe that the brain and spinal axis are closely invested 
by a thin membrane (pia mater) and that the bony case 
containing them is closely lined by a tougher, pig- 
mented membrane (dura mater). *Note the whitish 
liquid (lymph) which occupies the space between the 
pia mater and dura mater. Of what use do you 
suppose the lymph is ? 

M. THE BRAIN. 

(a) Study the dorsal view of the brain. Observe the pair of 

white elongated bodies, cerebral hemispheres, situated 
between the eyes, and note that they are separated 
longitudinally by a deep groove (fissure). 

(b) Observe that the anterior extremities of the cerebral 

hemispheres merge directly into a pair of rounded 
bodies, olfactory lobes. Trace the olfactory lobes for- 
ward and note that they are continuous, with bands of 
nerves, olfactory nerves, which terminate in the nasal 
regions. 
(f) Back of the cerebral hemispheres observe a pair of oval 
diverging bodies, optic lobes. Note the small median 

* This observation is not very satisfactory on alcoholic specimen. 



STUDY OF A FROG. 83 

body (pineal body) between the posterior ends of the 
cerebral hemispheres. 

(d) Back of the optic lobes note an enlargement, medulla 

oblongata, of the anterior end of the spinal cord. 

(e) Make a careful sketch of the brain, representing and 

naming all the regions which you have now identified. 

N. THE CRANIAL NERVES. 

(a) You can now study the nerves which are given off 
directly from the brain (cranial nerves). Cut through 
the first pair of cranial nerves, olfactory nerves, leav- 
ing as much of their stumps on the brain as possible, 
and carefully lift the anterior end of the brain and 
turn it slightly back to ascertain the origin of the 
second pair of cranial nerves (optic nerves). Cut these 
nerves, leaving long stumps as before. 

(S) Note that the optic nerves diverge from an X-shaped 
prominence (optic chiasma), in which they really cross, 
the one from the left side of the brain passing 1o the 
right eye, and the one from the right side to the left 
eye. 

(c) Carefully turn back the brain a little further and discover 
the third pair of cranial nerves (motor oculi). Note 
that they are smaller than the optic nerves, and take 
their origin in a spherical body (pituitary body) situated 
in the median line. The motor oculi supply certain 
muscles which move the eyes. 

yd) Now carefully trace along the outer side of the medulla 
oblongata to identify the fourth pair of cranial nerves 
(trochlear) which supply a pair of muscles of the eye. 
Cut these as you did the former. 

(e) A little way back of the trochlear note a pair of larger 
nerves (trigeminal nerves), which are really a union of 



84 ANIMAL TYPES. 

three cranial nerves, — Wit fifth (trigeminal) suppling 
the lining of the mouth and the muscles of the lower 
jaws ; the seventh (facial) supplying the skin and muscles 
of the throat ; and the eighth (auditory), which is the 
special nerve of hearing. 

(/) Observe a pair of small nerves (abducens) which arise 
from the median ventral surface of the medulla 
oblongata, being the sixth pair of cranial nerves. 
These also supply certain muscles of the eyes. 

(£) In about the same region, but from the sides of the 
medulla, note a pair of larger nerves, which really 
include the ninth (glossopharyngeal) and tenth (pneu- 
mogastric) nerves, the former supplying the tongue 
and muscles of the pharynx, and the latter the regions 
of the shoulder girdle and the lungs, heart, etc. 

(h) Now turn back the brain so as to get a good ventral view 
and make a careful sketch, representing and naming 
all the regions of the brain and the cranial nerves. 
Now return the brain to its natural position. 

0. SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES. 

(a) Examine the dorsal surface of the spinal cord in its 
natural position as far back as exposed to view. Note 
its form and size. Sketch it. 

(p) Now take up the Frog, turn the animal on its back and 
pin it down, and remove the viscera, if this has not 
already been done. Remove all loose tissue, so as to 
leave the inner surface of the body-wall bare along the 
sides of the vertebral column. The entire series of 
nerves, spinal nerves, arising from the spinal cord is 
now exposed. 

(c) Note the first spinal nerve (hypoglossal), which arises from 
the cord between the first and second vertebrae. 



STUDY OF A FROG. 85 

(d) Observe the second spinal nerve (brachial), a very large 

pair, leaving the vertebral canal between the second 
and third vertebrae. Trace the brachial nerve a little 
distance and note that it forms a union (brachial 
plexus) with the third spinal nerve. This nerve 
supplies the muscles of the shoulder and front limbs. 

(e) Identify the fourth, fifth, and sixth spinal nerves. 

(/) Identify the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth. Trace these 
nerves, and observe that they form a plexus (sciatic 
plexus) and then continue as one large nerve (sciatic 
nerve). The sciatic nerve is the largest in the body, 
and supplies the muscles of the hind limbs. 

{g) Make a diagram to represent the arrangement of the 
spinal nerves, and their relation to the spinal cord 
{del. 2'). 

(h) Write a description of the gross anatomy of the Frog 
and make careful drawings. 

MINUTE ANATOMY. 
P. THE BLOOD AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 

{a) Examine a microscopic preparation of blood {hp) and 
note the minute discs (red corpuscles). What is their 
shape and * color? Note the shape and appearance 
of the nucleus. Sketch several red corpuscles. 

{$) Can you find {hp) another kind of bodies (white corpus- 
cles) of various shapes and sizes ? Sketch. 

(c) Examine a preparation of lymph {hp) and note the form 
and * color of the corpuscles (lymph corpuscles). Which 
kind of blood corpuscles do these most resemble ? 
Sketch. 

{d) Study Up) a microscopic preparation of a portion of the 
lung. Observe the larger vessels, arteries and veins, 

*If the blood or lymph is studied from permanent preparations the natural color of the 
corpuscles has, of course, been changed. 



86 ANIMAL TYPES. 

and note their modes of branching. Can you distin- 
guish between the arteries and veins ? Trace a larger 
vessel into the minute net-work of blood vessels (cap- 
illaries). Note the black pigment cells of various form 
and size. Sketch a favorable portion of your preparation. 
(<?) Examine more carefully (Jip) the capillaries and note 
their connections and mode of branching. Can you 
find blood corpuscles in the capillaries ? Sketch a 
portion of the preparation as seen under the high 
power {del. ij4')- 

Q. TISSUES OF THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 

(a) Study a microscopic preparation containing a transverse 

section of the stomach, oesophagus, and small intestine. 
Examine (m) the section of the stomach. Note the 
folds of tissue extending into the interior. Sketch 
the section (X 3). 

(b) Examine (m) the section of the oesophagus and note the 

size as compared with that of the stomach. Study the 
different tissues (Ip), of which the wall is composed. 
How many layers are there? Note (1) the outer 
layer, peritoneum, which encloses the others ; (2) next 
to the peritoneum observe a double muscular layer, 
the outer portion of which has its fibres arranged 
longitudinally and the inner circularly; (3) next a 
layer (sub-mucosa) of connective tissue through which 
blood-vessels and minute absorbent vessels (lymphatics) 
pass. The lymphatics convey a colorless fluid (lymph) 
and generally closely accompany the blood-vessels; 
next (4) note the inner layer (mucous membrane) which 
constitutes the inner lining of the oesophagus. 
Sketch a portion of the section representing tissues of 
all the layers and in their relative thickness. 



STUDY OF A FROG. 87 

(c) Study (lp) the section of the small intestine. Note the 

minute projections (villi) on the mucous lining. 
Identify the four layers of tissue which you examined 
in the section of the oesophagus. Note (hp) the 
minute branches (lacteals) of the lymphatics in the 
villi, and their close relation with the capillaries. 
Sketch a villus, representing lacteals and capillaries. 

(d) Study a microscopic preparation of the liver (lp), cut 

perpendicular to the surface. Note that the substance 
of the liver is subdivided into numerous masses (lob- 
ules). What is the form or outline of the lobules ? 
Note the tissue (interlobular connective tissue) which 
connects the boundaries of the lobules. Sketch sev- 
eral adjacent lobules. 

(e) Note (hp) blood-vessels (interlobular veins) in the con- 

nective tissue. Carefully study the structure of the 
lobules and note nucleated masses (liver cells). Ob- 
serve their outline and the form and appearance of 
the nucleus. Sketch several adjacent liver cells. 

R. THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEYS. 

(a) Examine (lp) a microscopic preparation of a kidney, cut 

longitudinally and parallel with the flat surface. Note 
the twisted tubules (urinary tubules) extending in all 
directions, and hence cut, some transversely, some 
obliquely, and others longitudinally. Sketch. 

(b) Observe the clear circular spaces (malpighian capsules) 

scattered through the tissue. Note the granular mass 
(glomerules) which are likely to be shown in some of the 
capsules. Sketch a capsule containing the glomerules. 

(c) Examine the section (hp) more carefully and note the 

appearance of the above structures. Sketch small 
portions. 



88 ANIMAL TYPES. 

S. — NERVOUS TISSUE. 

(a) Examine a permanent preparation of a transverse sec- 

tion of the spinal cord and determine (m and lp) its 
general form. Note the deep, wide groove (ventral 
fissure) and a similar but narrower one on the opposite 
side (dorsal fissure). Note a small opening (central 
canal) situated near the middle of the section and in 
a line with the ventral and dorsal fissures. Is 
there a right and a left half of the spinal cord ? Can 
you identify the two halves. How ? 

(b) Observe that the nervous tissue appears in general as 

two kinds, the darker tissue (grey matter) and the 
lighter tissue (white matter). Note the general plan 
and outline of the regions of grey matter. Where is 
it located with reference to the white matter ? Are 
the lateral halves of the cord symmetrical ? 

(c) Note a pair of posterior ends (dorsal horns) of the grey 

matter, one in each half of the cord, and a similar pair 
(ventral horns) in the ventral region. Note also the 
central region which connects the lateral halves of 
grey matter (grey commissure). 

(d) Make a careful drawing of the spinal cord, representing 

the white and grey matter. 

ye) Examine more carefully {hp) the tissue (histological ele- 
ment) of which the cord is composed. Note the cells 
of the grey matter. Do you find cells containing sev- 
eral processes (multipolar nerve cells) and a distinct 
nucleus ? Can you find some with only two processes 
(bipolar cells) or only one process (unipolar cells) ? Of 
which kind do you find most ? Carefully draw one 
or more of each kind. 

(/) Examine the cells of the white matter. How many 
kinds do you find ? Note the few branched cells 



u 



STUDY OF A FROG. 89 

(neuroglia cells) which constitute the principal element 
of the connective tissue (neuroglia) of the spinal cord. 
Sketch one or more neuroglia cells. 
Note the circular structures (nerve fibres) in the white 
matter. In most regions of your section these fibres 
are cut transversely. Are the nerve fibres all of the 
same diameter ? Note the central core (axis-cylinder) 
of the nerve fibre. Sketch. 

(/V) At the base of the anterior fissure nerve fibres pass from 
one half of the cord across to the other; here these 
fibres may be seen in longitudinal view. Examine the 
longitudinal fibres and sketch. 

(/) Write a description of the minute anatomy of the Frog 
and make careful drawings. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. A review of the endoskeleton of the Frog, and compari- 

sons with that of the Perch. 

2. The life history of the Frog. 

3. The special characteristics of Salamanders and Newts. 

4. A comparison of the different forms of adult Amphibia 

with the typical stages in the development of the Frog. 
Animal ontogeny and phylogeny. 

5. The gradual transition from aquatic to terrestrial habits 

in the Amphibia. 

6. A comparison of the general morphology of Amphibia 

with that of fishes. 

7. The relation and interdependence of the organs in a 

higher animal. 

8. The characteristics and the orders of Amphibia. 

References. — 13 — 20 — 31 — 34 — 43 — 44 — 60 — 62 — 72 — 78 — 79 — 81— 104 
— 105 — 107 — 109 — 112 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 124 — 125 — 126 — 129 — 133 — 150 — 
165. 



STUDY XI. 
A STUDY OF A TURTLE. 

CHRYSEMYS MARGINATA* 

As an example of the reptilian type. 

Material Required. — (i) Some live Turtles; (2) a set of small, alco- 
holic specimens, in to to, for external study ; (3) a set of articulated bones of 
the axial endoskeleton and exoskeleton ; (4) sets of bones of the appendicu- 
lar skeleton ; (5) wet preparations of the injected vascular system ; (6) dry 
preparations of the respiratory organs ; (7) wet preparations of the diges- 
tive and urino-genital organs. 

Habitat. 

The Turtle inhabits the sandy and muddy shores along 
streams, lakes, ponds, and adjacent swamps and meadows. It 
is an inoffensive, timid animal, avoiding man whenever possi- 
ble. Its food consists of fish, frogs, crayfish, and aquatic 
insects and vegetation. The Turtle, like most of our reptiles, 
is oviparous, burying its large white eggs in the sand or earth 
to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The Turtle is an ani- 
mal of very slow growth. Turtles may be kept alive in the 
laboratory indefinitely, provided the proper food is supplied. 
If the water in the aquarium is deep, provision should be made 
to enable the animals to come to rest above the surface of 
the water. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. tOBSERVATIONS ON THE LIVING TURTLE. 

(a) Observe the Turtle out of water and note its method of 
locomotion. Does it walk, crawl, or jump? Note the 
order in which its two pairs of limbs move. 

* Any species of Chrysemys will answer equally well. 

t See note on p. 70. 

90 



STUDY OF A TURTLE. 9 1 

(b) Hold a stick to its mouth and note the result. Observe 
the form of its jaws. Are they provided with teeth ? 

(e) Touch the eye and observe the number of eyelids. Note 
the inner one (nictitating membrane). Where is each 
attached ? 

(d) Cause the head and appendages to retract into the shell. 

Now turn the Turtle on its back and observe its method 
of getting right side up again. 

(e) Observe the Turtle in water and note its method of swim- 
ming. 

(/) How long does it remain under water? Do you see 
bubbles of air passing to the surface while its head is 
in the water? Why cannot the turtle remain under 
water indefinitely? 

B. — THE EXOSKELETON. 

(a) Observe the general shape of the shell. Note that it 
consists of an upper portion (carapace) and a lower or 
ventral portion (plastron). Note the connection 
(bridge) between the carapace and plastron. 

(fr) Examine the carapace and note that it is marked off 
into sections (bony epidermal plates). Study the shape 
and arrangement of the bony plates. 

{c) Note (1) the smaller plates arranged around the edge 
(marginal plates) ; (2) , the row along the dorsal 
median line (dorsal plates); (3) those between the mar- 
ginal and dorsal rows (costal plates). How many plates 
of each kind and how many plates in the carapace ? 

{d) Make an outline sketch of the carapace {del. 2'), and 
in correct proportion, representing accurately all the 
bony plates. 

(e) Examine the plastron and note its general shape and the 

arrangement of its plates. Do you find a median 



92 ANIMAL TYPES. 

row as you did in the carapace ? How many longi- 
tudinal rows are there ? 

(/) Observe the plates of the plastron by pairs and note 
their size and shape, (i) the triangular anterior pair 
(gular plates) ; (2) the larger pair just back of the 
gular plates ( postgular plates) ; (3) the pair in the 
region of the pectoral girdle (pectoral plates); (4) the 
next (abdominal plates) ; (5) the next (preanal plates) ; 
(6) and the smaller triangular pair (anal plates). Make 
a diagram of the plastron, {del. 2'), representing and 
naming the plates. 

(g) Note also the two irregularly shaped plates on each side 
which form the bridge or connection between the 
plastron and carapace. Note the anterior pair (axilar 
plates), carved out to accommodate the fore limbs, 
and the posterior pair (inguinal plates) in front of the 
hind limbs. With which plates of the plastron proper 
do these join ? 

{h) Observe the exoskeleton (bony scales) on the head and 
appendages, and note their relation to the leathery 
skin. 

(/) Examine the hand and foot and note the number of 
digits in each. Note the horny structures (claws) 
on the digits. 

(z) Write a description of the external morphology of the 
Turtle and make careful drawings. 

INTERNAL ANATOMY. 
C. THE AXIAL ENDOSKELETON. 

(a) Study the axial endoskeleton in a dry preparation of 
connected bones, examining the preparation from the 
ventral side. Note the modifications of the vertebrae 
in different regions of the vertebral column. 



STUDY OF A TURTLE. 93 

(b) Note the form and number of vertebrae in the neck 

(cervical vertebrae) situated between the head and the 
shoulder girdle. Sketch the ventral view of a cervical 
vertebra. 

(c) Note the form and number of vertebrae in the series 

(dorsal vertebrae) between the last cervical and the 
first one immediately back of the pelvic arch. 

(d) Observe the flat bones (ribs or costal plates) extending 

from the vertebral column laterally toward the edge 
of the carapace and united with it. How many pairs 
of ribs can you identify ? Observe their exact form 
and the order of arrangement. 

(e) Sketch two adjacent dorsal vertebrae and the ribs con- 

necting with them on one side (del. 2 f ). 
(/) Examine the vertebrae back of the pelvic arch (caudal 
vertebrae). Note their varying size and shape and 
state their number. Sketch the fourth and eighth 
caudal vertebrae. 

D. THE APPENDICULAR ENDOSKELETON. 

(a) Study the bones which constitute the pectoral arch, and 

note that on each side three bones unite to form the 
articulation at the shoulder. 

(b) Identify (1) the scapula, being the dorsal one, (2) cor- 

acoid, being the posterior ventral one, and (3) the 
precoracoid, being the anterior ventral bone. Which 
articulate with the humerus ? 

(c) Identify the humerus, radius, ulna, carpi, and phalanges. 

How many of each kind ? 

(d) Sketch one of the anterior limbs including its bones of 

the shoulder girdle. 

(e) Study the bones which constitute the pelvic arch. Note 

of how many bones on each side, it consists. 



94 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(/) Identify (i) the large bone (pubis) projecting in an ante- 
rior and ventral direction, (2) the peg-like bone (ischium) 
back of the pubis, and (3) the bone (ilium) extending 
obliquely upward and backward. Which of these bones 
articulate with the femur and which with the vertebral 
column? 

(g) Identify the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsi, metatarsi, and 
phalanges. How many of each kind ? 

(A) Sketch one of the posterior limbs, including its bones 
of the pelvic arch. 

E. THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

(a) Identify the tracAea, broncAi, and lungs. 

(b) Pass a string around the oesophagus, inflate the lungs 

by inserting the blow-pipe through the mouth of the 
Turtle, and tie the string to retain the air in the 
lungs. Arrange the lungs in their natural position 
and sketch the respiratory organs. 

(c) Note the rings of cartilage in the trachea. What is 

their function? 

F. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

(a) In a wet dissected preparation identify the cesopAagus 

or gullet. Examine it and compare its wall with that 
of the trachea. Why the difference ? 

(b) Identify the stomacA, small intestine, large intestine, 

cloaca, anus. 

(c) Identify the liver, bile bladder, pancreas, and spleen. 

(d) Arrange the digestive organs in a convenient order and 

make a careful sketch of the entire system. 

G. THE URINO-GENITAL SYSTEM. 

(a) Identify the kidney, urinary bladder, and sketch. 



STUDY OF A TURTLE. 95 

{b) Identify the gonads, being either (?) ovary, including 
ova and oviducts; or ($) spermary, including spermatozoa 
and sperm-ducts. Sketch. 

H. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

(a) Note the position and general form of the heart. 

Observe the pericardial sac and the pericardium. 
(0) Compare the heart of the Turtle with that of the Frog 

with reference to size and shape. Do you find 

external evidence of two auricles, a right auricle and 

a left auricle ? 

(c) Observe the great arteries originating from the ventricle 

and passing forward over the ventral surface of the 
auricles. Examine these vessels carefully and de- 
termine how many there are at the very beginning. 

(d) Now observe the one most ventral of these arterial 

trunks (pulmonary artery) which takes its origin from 
the anterior edge of the ventricle and a little to the 
right of the median line. Trace the pulmonary 
artery forward and note its right and left branches 
leading respectively to the right and left lungs. 

(e) A short distance in front of the heart observe the 

remaining arterial trunks, and note that apparently 
there are three distinct arteries, one passing forward 
in the median line, and the other two curving upward 
and back, one to the right and the other to the left. 
(/) Examine carefully this latter pair of arteries, and see 
whether you can determine that the one passing to 
the left side of the body (left aorta) really has its 
origin on the right oi the median line in the ventricle, 
and also that the one passing to the right side of the 
body (right aorta) has its origin on the left of the 
median line of the ventricle. Trace the right and 



96 ANIMAL TYPES. 

left aortae around their curves and a short distance 
back through the body cavity, and note that they unite 
and form a single artery (dorsal aorta) which passes 
posteriorly along the vertebral column. 

(g) Carefully examine the left aorta near the junction with 
its fellow, and note that two relatively large branches 
are given off. Trace the first (coeliac artery) and 
determine to what organs it distributes branches. 
Trace the second (mesenteric artery) and determine its 
distribution. 

(h) Trace the dorsal aorta back and learn what you can 
about its distribution. 

(/) Examine the right aorta at the point of its origin, and 
note that the artery which passes forward along the 
median line (innominate artery) is really a branch of 
the right aorta. Trace the innominate artery forward, 
and note that it divides into two branches, one pass- 
ing to the right and the other to the left. 

(/) Trace the left branch of the innominate, and observe 
that it forms two branches, one passing outward 
(subclavian artery) and the other (carotid artery) pass- 
ing forward. Trace each of these far enough to 
determine their distribution. 

(k) Now make a careful sketch of the heart and arterial 
system as far as you have studied it, and name its 
parts. 

(/) Lift the heart forward and examine the veins entering 
the auricles. Note the short trunk (pulmonary vein) 
entering the left auricle. From what organ does this 
vessel bring blood and what kind ? 

(m) Now examine the entrance of veins into the right 
auricle. Note that there are three veins entering at 
the same point, through the venus sinus, two (precaval 



STUDY OF A TURTLE. 97 

veins) coming from an anterior direction and one 

(postcaval vein) from the posterior direction. 
(n) Learn what you can of the source of the caval veins, 

and make a sketch of the heart and the venous trunks. 
(o) Write a description of the anatomy of the Turtle and 

make careful drawings. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. General review of structure of the exoskeleton in the 
Turtle, and comparisons with that of the Snake and 
Lizard. 

2. Morphology of the organs of respiration and circulation 

in the Turtle. 

3. A comparative view of the anatomy of the Turtle, Snake 

and Lizard. 

4. The significance of hibernation in certain groups of 

Vertebrates. 

5. The significance of " cold-blooded " and " warm-blooded " 

Vertebrates. 

6. The characteristics and the orders of Reptilia. 

References. — 31 — 60 — 81 — 91 — 114 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 124 — 125 — 129 — 
150—165. 



STUDY XII. 
A STUDY OF A PIGEON. 

*ECTOPISTES MIGRATORIUS. 
As an example of the Aves, or the bird type of animals. 
Material Required. — (i) Some live Pigeons; (2) one or more mounted 
specimens of the wild Pigeon ; (3) one or more mounted skeletons of the 
Pigeon; (4) a supply of disarticulated bones; (5) a supply of the different 
classes of feathers ; (6) one or more dry Pigeon skins, including the head, 
limbs and feathers ; (7) a preparation of the injected blood vessels ; (8) a 
dissection of the digestive and urino-genital systems ; (9) a dissection of 
the central nervous system. 

Habitat. 

The Wild Pigeons and Doves are common to most sections 
of the United States. They live in pairs or in flocks, and are 
usually migratory, feeding almost exclusively on seeds and 
grains. The female lays two eggs in a rudely-constructed 
nest, and is assisted by the male bird in hatching and caring 
for the young. The young are nourished by a creamy fluid, 
secreted in the crop of both sexes of the adult during the 
breeding season. The Rock-Pigeon is the ancestral form of 
all the numerous races of domestic and fancy Pigeons. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

THE ENDO- SKELETON. 
A. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

{a) Examine a mounted skeleton of the Pigeon and note its 
general plan and form. Note the points of support 
which balance the body while the animal is standing. 
Where is the greater weight of the body, anterior or 

* Note. — The common domestic Dove will serve quite as well as the Wild Pigeon for 
this study. 

98 



STUDY OF A PIGEON. 99 

posterior of these supports ? Why does the bird not 
topple forward ? Note the points of support when the 
bird is flying. 

(b) Note the curvature of the vertebral column. Make a 

diagram, consisting of a pair of lines, to represent the 
curves of the vertebral column, as seen from the left 
side. Add to this diagram the outline of the head 
and body. Now add a diagram of the left wing and 
leg {del. 3'). 

B. *THE AXIAL SKELETON. 

(a) Note the general outline of the head, lateral and dorsal 

views. Note the rounded cranial portion, the taper- 
ing facial portion in front of the latter, and the large 
orbits, 

(b) Examine the lower jaw, or mandible. Is it directly articu- 

lated with the skull ? Note the three-knobbed bone 
(quadrate) which articulates with the jaws and the 
skull. 

(c) Note the bone, dentary, which forms the anterior end of 

the mandible. How does the dentary in the Pigeon 
differ from those in the Perch, Frog, and Turtle ? 
(d) Examine the upper jaw and note the bone (pre-maxilla) 
which forms the anterior end of the beak. Note the 
slender rod-like bone (maxilla) extending back from 
the pre-maxilla. 
(e) Note that the pre-maxilla contains two proximal projec- 
tions, one above and the other below the nasal cavity. 
These posterior projections articulate with the anterior 
ends of a bone (nasal) which connects the pre-maxilla 
with the skull. 

♦Note. — The student should have access to a mounted skeleton in studying the position 
and relation of the bones. He should also be provided with a supply of disarticulated bones 
for study in detail and sketching. 



IOO ANIMAL TYPES. 

(/) Note the bone (frontal) which forms the upper boundary 
of the orbits, and the dorsal surface of the cranium. 
Note the bones (parietals) just back of the frontal 
and, if possible, trace their articulation with the 
frontal. 

(g) At the posterior end of the skull, note the nearly circu- 
lar aperture, foramen magnum, through which the 
spinal cord enters the cranium. 

(h) Note the rounded knob, occipital condyle, just* in front of 
the foramen magnum. How does it differ from that 
of the Turtle ? 
(/) Observe a cup-like depression (tympanic cavity) at the 
lateral and hinder end of the skull. Note the promi- 
nent lip on the bones which outline this cavity. Just 
within this lip is attached the tympanic membrane. 

(J) Note in the middle of the tympanic cavity an upper 
aperture (fenestra ovalis) and a lower one (fenestra 
- rotunda). In life, the fenestra ovalis lodges a slender 
bone (columella), the outer end of which is attached to 
the tympanic membrane, and conveys the vibrations 
of the latter to the auditory nerve. 

(k) Note the bony frame-work (hyoid apparatus) situated just 
below the mandibles and extending in the same direc- 
tion. This apparatus is situated in the floor of the 
mouth and supports the tongue, and represents, in 
part, the branchial arches of the Perch. 

(/) Make a sketch of the lateral view of the skull and name 
the bones which you have studied. 

(m) Examine the vertebral column and note the different 
regions. Note the first vertebra that bears a pair of ribs 
which are united ventrally with the sternum. This is 
the first thoracic vertebra, and all in front of this may 
be regarded as cervical vertebrce. How many cervical 



STUDY OF A PIGEON. IOI 

vertebrae are there ? Note their variation in size and 
form. How many have ribs ? Sketch the dorsal and 
lateral views of a cervical vertebra belonging to about 
the middle region of the neck. 

(n) Note the thoracic vertebra. Observe that they have free 
ribs and that they are closely united by their centra 
and the processes of their arches. These vertebrae 
are all included in the thoracic series, and all, except- 
ing the last, bear free ribs. How many thoracic 
vertebrae are there ? 

(o) Note the form of the ribs (vertebral ribs) borne on the 
thoracic vertebrae. Observe that they are united with 
a ventral series of ribs (sternal ribs) borne on the 
sternum. How many pairs of sternal ribs are there ? 
Sketch the posterior view of a disarticulated thoracic 
vertebra, including its ribs. 

(/) Back of the thoracic region, and including the last tho- 
racic vertebra, note a region of the vertebral column, 
"sacrum" in which the vertebrae are intimately fused. 
The first two or three are the lumbar vertebrae. These 
are the most indistinct, and bear very short transverse 
processes. The next three or four are the sacral, and 
bear somewhat longer processes. The following five 
are caudal vertebrae, but are fused and enter into the 
formation of the "sacrum." 

(a) Observe the free caudal vertebrae back of the " sacrum," 
and note the number and their dorsal and lateral pro- 
cesses. At the posterior end of the vertebral column, 
note the irregularly shaped bone (plowshare bone) which 
represents several fused vertebrae. 

(r) Examine the sternum, and note its upper concave sur- 
face and its broad ventral, vertical plate (keel). What 
do you suppose is the function of the keel ? Give a 



102 ANIMAL TYPES. 

reason for your supposition. Make two sketches, a 
left lateral, and a dorsal view. 

C. THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON. 

(a) Study the shoulder girdle. Identify the scapula and the 

coracoid, and note their form and relation. Note the 
cavity (glenoid cavity) for the articulation of the 
humerus. Sketch the scapula and coracoid of one 
side, representing them in their proper relations. 

(b) Identify the clavicle. Note that the clavicles unite in 

the middle to form one bone (furcula), known as the 
"wish-bone" or "merry-thought." 

(c) Describe the articulation of a coracoid, that is to say, 

name the bones with which the coracoid articulates at 
its anterior end, and state the kind of articulation, 
and then do the same for its posterior end. 

(d) Observe the plan of the anterior limb or wing. Identify 
the humerus. Note that the antebrachium consists of 
two distinct bones, the ulna and radius, the former 
being somewhat larger than the latter. What marked 
differences are there between the antebrachium of the 
Pigeon and that of the Turtle ? 
(e) Describe the articulation of the humerus. Sketch either 
the humerus or ulna. Name the one which you have 
sketched, and designate its proximal and distal ends. 

(/) Examine the very much modified hand, and note that 
there are only two small bones, the carpi, to represent 
the wrist ; one (radiale) on the radial or thumb side, and 
the other (ulnare) on the ulnar or inner side of thehand. 

(g) Note that only three metacarpals are present, the first 
is small ; the second is long and stout ; and the third 
is long and slender. All are fused together at their- 
proximal ends. 



STUDY OF A PIGEON. 103 

(h) Note that the first and third digits are completed with 
single phalanges, while the second is provided with 
two, the proximal one being large and much flattened. 

(/) Make a sketch of the wing and name all the bones. 

(/) Study the hip girdle, consisting of the large bones which 
extend along the side of the "sacrum" and are fused 
with it. Note the round floorless cup (acetabulum) in 
in the lateral region of the girdle. This is the arti- 
cular cavity for the femur. 

(k) Note that the hip girdle consists of two large bones, one 
on each side of "sacrum," and separate from each 
other. Each bone (os innominatum) is composed of 
three fused bones, the boundaries of which are not 
always easily found. 

(/) Note that the largest bone (ilium) extends along the 
" sacrum" and above the acetabulum. Another 
(ischium) extends back of the acetabulum in the form 
of a vertical blade, and the third (pubis) is a slender 
rod which extends from the acetabulum back along 
the ventral edge of the ischium. 

(m) Note that all the bones of the innominatum enter into the 
formation of the acetabulum. Sketch the lateral view 
of the os innominatum, and name the bones included. 

(ri) Examine the femur and note its articulating processes. 
Note the crus. How many bones do you find ? Ob- 
serve the larger bone (tibio-tarsus) and the small one 
(fibula) at the proximal end of the former. Are thev 
free or fused? Which joint of the leg represents the 
knee ? Do you find any trace of the patella ? Which 
joint represents the heel ? 
(0) Note the third large bone (tarso-metatarsus), which is 
formed by the union of the tarsi and metatarsi, there 
being no separate tarsi in the adult. 



104 ANIMAL TYPES. 

{p) Study the foot and note the number of digits present. 
The digit pointing backward represents the first, 
hallux, or great toe, while the fifth digit is not present. 
State the number of phalanges for each digit. Make 
a sketch of the leg and name all the bones. 

(q) Write a description of the endoskeleton of the Pigeon, 
and make careful drawings of the principal bones 
which you have sketched in your notes. 

EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY 
D. GENERAL EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS, 

{a) Observe the general form of the Pigeon. How does 
the relative size of the head, neck and limbs compare 
with those of the Turtle and Frog ? 
(b) Note the form of the head and its pointed beak. Note 
that the beak is composed of an upper and a lower part 
(upper and lower mandibles). Compare the mandibles 
and note how they are related. 

(c) Observe the tongue, note its peculiarity, and compare it 

with that of the Frog. What difference in function is 
there ? 

(d) Note the position and form of the nostrils. Determine 

whether they have internal openings. Compare with 
those of the Perch and Frog, 

(e) Just back of the nostrils, note a naked swollen patch of 

skin (cere), situated at the base of the upper mandible. 
What is the significance of this characteristic ? 
(/) Note the position, shape, and color of the eye. How 
many eye-lids do you find ? Is a nictitating membrane 
present ? If so, locate it. Make a diagram ( X 2) of 
the eye, representing all the parts which may be seen 
externally. 



STUDY OF A PIGEON. IO5 

(g) Carefully brush the feathers forward to find the external 
opening of the ear (external auditory aperture). Describe 
its location. Can you identify a tympanum and a tym- 
panic cavity ? Compare the external ear of the Pigeon 
with that of the Frog. What peculiarity of the feathers 
which cover the external ear (auriculars) do you note ? 

(h) Observe the flexible neck and compare it with that of the 
Turtle and Frog. 

(/) Make an outline sketch of the left lateral view of the 
head, representing the external characters which you 
have studied. 

E. THE EXO-SKELETON, FEATHERS AND HORNY SCALES. 

(a) Examine the feathery covering of the Pigeon. Why 

should the feathers be regarded as an exo-skeleton ? 

(b) Are the feathers found on all regions of the body ? 

Where do you find spaces (apteria) which are bare ? 
What regions (pterylae) are covere d with feathers ? 

(c) How many kinds of feathers do you find ? Note the 

largest and strongest (quill-feathers). Where are they 
located, and what do you suppose is their function ? 
Note the number of tail-quills. 

(d) Examine the wing-quills. Observe those borne on the 

hand (primaries) and note their number. Note the 
number borne on the forearm (secondaries). Do you 
find quills (tertiaries) on the arm ? Make a simple 
diagram (del. 2') representing the skeleton of the wing 
and indicate the position of the wing-quills. 
(e) Note that the quill-feathers are overlapped by smaller 
feathers (wing-coverts). Do you find these on both 
the upper and lower surfaces of the wing ? What do 
you suppose is their function ? 
(/) Note the smaller feathers (contour-feathers) which cover 
nearly all parts of the body. What is their formation ? 



I06 ANIMAL TYPES. 

(g) Observe the minute rudimentary feathers (filoplumes) 

which occur abundantly over the body. 
(ti) Examine the parts of a quill-feather. Observe the central 
portion (stem) and note its proximal hollow portion 
(quill) and its distal solid portion (shaft). 

(/) Observe the small opening (inferior umbilicus) at the 
proximal end of the quill and another (superior umbil- 
icus) at its distal end. 
(/) Note the expanded portion of the feather (vane), extend- 
ing along each side of the shaft. Observe that the 
vane is composed of narrow branches (barbs) attached 
to the shaft. Sketch a quill-feather (del, 3'). 

(k) Remove a barb and examine it (m and lp). Note the 
rows of small barbs (distal barbules) attached along its 
distal edge, and a similar row (proximal barbules) along 
its proximal edge. What differences do you observe 
between the proximal and distal barbules (lp). 

(I) Examine (hp) two barbs in their natural relation and 
describe the relation of the adjacent proximal and dis- 
tal barbules. Sketch. 
(m) Examine the covering of a tarsus and of the toes. Note 
the horny shield-like scales (scutella) which protect the 
tarsus in front. Note the shape and the relation of 
the scutella. Sketch a few adjacent scutella. On 
account of this covering the tarsi of the Pigeon are 
called scutellate. 

(n) Now observe the form and arrangement of the scales 
(reticulum) on the posterior surface of a tarsus. 
Sketch. This surface is called reticulated, on account 
of the shape and arrangement of its scales. 

(0) Note the horny scales on the toes. Is there a definite 
arrangement of these scales ? Note the sharp, horny 
claws of the foot. Compare the horny covering and 



STUDY OF A PIGEON. 107 

claws ot the foot of the Pigeon with that of the 
Turtle. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. Demonstration of the general anatomy of the Pigeon. 

2. The principal types of Birds, and their distinguishing 

characteristics. 

3. The affinity between Birds and Reptiles. 

4. The development of the bird from the egg. 

5. The significance of the high temperature of the blood in 

Birds. 

6. The migration, habits, and distribution of Birds. 

7. Variation and its cause. Example from Pigeons. 

8. The theory of Natural Selection and the leading facts 

upon which it is based. 

9. The characteristics and the orders of Aves. 

References. — 31 — 34 — 43 — 60 — 81 — 83 — 84 — 91 — 93 — 98 — 99 — 104 — 
105 — 106 — 108 — 112 — 115 — 116 — 120 — 121 — 122 — 124 — 125 — 128 — 129 — 130 
— 131 — 138 — 148 — 150 — 160 — 162 — 163 — 164 — 165 — 168. 



STUDY XIII. _ 

/ 
A STUDY OF A CAT.* 

FELIS DOMESTIC ATA. 

As an example of the higher vertebrate or mammalian type. 

Material Required. — (i) A live Cat ; (2) a mounted skeleton of a Cat ; 
(3) specimens of skulls of other mammals ; (4) a collection of disarticulated 
bones of the Cat and other mammals ; (5) a dissected preparation of the 
digestive system of a small Catt; (6) a preparation of the injected arteries 
and veins of a kitten ; (7) a preparation of the central nervous system ; (8) 
a set of microscopical preparations of the skin, showing the development 
of hairs. 

Habitat. 

The Wild Cat {Felts catus) is the " Common Cat " of zoology, 
but is now found native in only comparatively few countries. The 
common domestic Cat (Felis domesticata) is found in every civi- 
lized community, and is represented by many varieties, all of 
which are probably descendants of the domestic Cat of Egypt, 
whose ancestors were probably the native Cat {Felis maniculata) 
of northern Africa. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. OBSERVATIONS ON THE, LIVING CAT. \ 

(a) Note the general form of the body and the different 

regions of the animal, viz., head, neck, trunk, tail, and legs. 

(b) Note the covering of hair, or exoskeleton, its color and 

texture. In what regions of the body are no hairs 
present ? 

* In this Study the Rabbit or Dog may be substituted for the Cat. 

t Kittens of about five weeks of age, on account of their smaller size, are more desirable 
than adult specimens, for demonstration preparations, and are also more convenient to pre- 
serve in alcohol. 

t The pupil may make these observations and notes at his home, and the instructor, if he 
prefers, may subsequently review the points before the class, with the aid of a live Cat. 

108 



ANIMAL TYPES. 109 

(c) Compare the exoskeleton of the Cat with those of the 
Pigeon, Turtle, and Perch, with reference to form and 
structure. 

{d) Note the large, strong hairs, or whiskers (vibrissae) sit- 
uated on the upper lips. What do you suppose to be 
their function ? Make a sketch (X *4) of the end of 
the nose and lips (muzzle), in front view, representing 
the whiskers. 

(<?) In what other regions are long hairs also present ? Has 

the Cat eyelashes or eyebrows ? 
(/) Examine the eyes carefully and note their size, shape, 
and color. What is the shape of the pupil ? Is its 
greater diameter in a vertical or horizontal direction ? 
What advantage or disadvantage do you see in this 
characteristic ? Sketch an eye. 

(g) Let the Cat look into a dark closet, or hold her eyes shut 
for about a minute, and then suddenly allow a bright 
light to shine into her eyes, and quickly observe the 
change in the pupil. Describe what took place and 
try to explain how and why. 

(A) Examine the eyelids. Can you find the third eyelid ? 
If so, where is it located and how does it compare 
with that of the Pigeon ? 

(/) Examine the external ears carefully and note their posi- 
tion and shape. Are they movable ? What is the 
function of the external ear ? Sketch one. 

(J) Observe the limbs and note their position and shape. 
Are they similar as to structure and function ? Com- 
pare the limbs of the Cat with those of other four- 
legged animals (quadrupeds) already studied. 

(k) Compare the limbs of the Cat with those of a two-legged 
animal (biped) already studied. Which pairs of limbs 
are homologous ? Why ? 



IIO STUDY OF A CAT. 

(/) Examine the paws of the Cat. Note their shape and the 
number of digits in each. Are they all alike ? Sketch 
the ventral view of a paw. 
{in) Observe the claws carefully and note that they are 
capable of being withdrawn (retractile) from sight and 
touch. What advantage can you see in retractile 
claws ? Compare the claws of the Cat with those of 
the Dog. 

(«) Write a description of the external appearance of the 
Cat. 

B. — THE GENERAL FRAME-WORK OF THE CAT. 

(a) Study the general plan of the mounted skeleton of the 
Cat. What is the direction of the vertebral column 
or main axis of the trunk ? Compare it with the 
direction of the main axis in the trunk of the human 
skeleton. 

{b) Which of the typical animals of former studies have 
horizontal axes ? Do any possess a vertical axis ? 

(c) Make a diagram {del. 2') to represent the general plan 

of the skeleton. 

(d) Observe the shape and relative size of the vertebrae in 

different regions of the vertebral column of the 
mounted skeleton. Note the number of cervical, 
dorsal, lumbar, and caudal vertebrce, respectively. 
Compare with the human skeleton.* 

{e) From a collection of disarticulated bones of the Cat, 
select vertebrae to represent each of the principal 
regions of the backbone. Sketch the anterior face of 
a cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebra, avoiding the 
first and second cervical. 

(/) Observe and note the peculiarities in the form and artic- 
ulation of the most anterior vertebra, atlas, and the 

* See note on p. in. 



ANIMAL TYPES. Ill 

second (axis) in the skeleton of the Cat. Note the 
pointed projection (odontoid peg) extending forward 
from the axis. How is it related to the atlas ? 

(g) Identify the atlas and axis among the disarticulated 
bones and note the number of processes for occipital 
condyles. Sketch an anterior and lateral view of the 
atlas and axis. 

(h) Observe and identify the different bones in one of the 
anterior limbs in the skeleton of the Cat, and compare 
them with the corresponding bones in the arm of the 
human skeleton, as to position, number and shape. 

(/) Observe and identify the different bones in one of the 
posterior extremities, and compare with the leg of the 
human skeleton. 

C. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SKULL AND TEETH. 

(a) Observe the general shape of the skull of the Cat. 

How does it differ from the human * skull ? 
(J?) Identify and compare in the two skulls, the superior 

maxillaries, inferior maxillaries, molars, frontals, par- 

ietals, occipitals, etc. 

(c) Sketch the outline (del 2 f ) of a lateral view of the skull 

of the Cat, carefully locating the external opening of 
the ear. Make a similar sketch of the human skull, 
reduced to the same size, being careful to retain the 
correct proportions. 

(d) Now in your sketch of the skull of the Cat, with the 

aid of a rule, draw a sharp line from the anterior tip 
of the upper jaw through the opening of the ear, 
and another from the former point through the upper 
and most anterior point of the frontal bone. The 
angle formed by these lines is called the facial a ftgU, 

* If a human skeleton is not available, a manakin or chart may be substituted. 



[12 STUDY OF A CAT. 

and is an important measurement in the comparative 

study of skulls. 
(e) Draw similar lines on your sketch of the human skull. 

Estimate or measure the facial angle of each in 

degrees and compare. 
(/) Examine the teeth in the jaws of the Cat. Note the 

size and shape of the front teeth (incisors). How 

many incisors are there altogether? How many on 

the right and how many on the left side of each jaw ? 
(g) Indicate the arrangement and number of incisors in 

the upper and lower jaws in the form of a double 

fraction, thus, /. Jhi in which a, I?, c, d represent the 

number of incisors in the right and left upper, and 

right and left lower jaws respectively. 
(//) Back of the incisors note the large, sharp-pointed teeth 

(canines). Write the formula for the canines, using 

the letter c. as the abbreviation. 
(/) Observe the irregular-shaped teeth back of the canine 

(premolars), including all, excepting the last one in 

each row. Write the formula. 
(/) Describe the remaining teeth (molars), and write the 

formula. 
(k) Now write all the preceding formulae in a line to repre- 
sent the complete dentition (dental formula) for the Cat. 
(/) What do you suppose is the special function of each 

kind of teeth in the Cat ? State your reason. 
(m) Make a careful drawing of one of each type of teeth 

found in mammals. Write a description of the skull 

and teeth of the Cat. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The general anatomy of the Cat, and the principal 
characteristics of Mammals. 



ANIMAL TYPES. 113 

2. The circulatory system in Birds and Mammals. The 

structural elements of blood. The shape of blood 
corpuscles in different groups of Vertebrates. 

3. Dental formulae in Mammals. Development of teeth. 

Temporary and permanent sets in Man. 

4. Morphology of the mammalian eye and ear. 

5. Development and histology of bone. Classes of bones 

as to form of development. 

6. Morphology of the nervous system in Mammals. 

7. Reproduction in Mammals. 

8. The characteristics and orders of Mammalia. 
References. — 31 — 43 — 60 — 77 — 81 — 91 — 98 — 105 — 106 — no — 1 12 — 1 16 

— 122 — 124 — 125 — 129 — 150 — 165. 

COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF THE VERTEBRATE TYPES. 

The pupil should now make a comparative review of the 
morphology of Vertebrates, including his laboratory work, 
lectures, and collateral reading. 

1. Comparative view of the endoskeleton in Vertebrates. 

2. Comparative view of the organs of locomotion, and 

the homology in the limbs in different groups of 
Vertebrates. 

3. Dermal structures or exoskeleton, — scales, bony and 

horny plates, quills, feathers, hairs, claws and nails. 

4. Comparative morphology of the organs of digestion 

and the variation with food and habits in different 
groups of Vertebrates. 

5. Comparative morphology of the organs of circulation,— 

simple heart of two chambers ; a heart of three 
chambers ; the double heart of four distinct chambers ; 
solitary aortic arch. 

6. Comparative morphology of the organs of respiration, — 

gills, air-sacs; lungs; complete diagram. 

7. The phylogeny of the Vertebrate ear. 



114 STUDY OF A CAT. 

8. Comparative morphology of the nervous system and 
relative degree of intelligence in different groups of 
Vertebrates. 
9. Affinity of the groups in the animal kingdom. 
10. Artificial and natural systems of classification in natural 
history. 

General References. — 3 — 25 — 27 — 37 — 42 — 43 — 48 — 49 — 51 — 59 — 61 — 
62 — 75 — 81 — 83 — 84 — 86 — 93 — 108 — in — 120 — 139 — 143 — 160 — 162 — 163 
— 164. 



Part II. 



PLANT TYPES. 



NOTE. 

Technical terms occurring in the Animal Studies, should they 
also occur in the Plant Studies, do not, as a rule, again appear in 
full-face type with definitions. 



STUDY I. 

A STUDY OF GREEN SLIME AND THE YEAST 

PLANT. 

PROTOCOCCUS VIRIDIS AND SACCH AROMYCES CEREVISIM. 

As exa?nples of the simplest forms of unicellular plants ; a cholorophyll-bearing 
plant and a saprophyte. To represent the Protophytes, or sexless plants. 

Material Required. — (i) Protococcus in a fresh condition; (2) brewer's 
yeast.* 

Habitat. 

Protococcus is a minute, green, unicellular plant, growing on 
damp stones, flower pots and the trunks of trees, where it has the 
appearance of a dark green slimy coating. It may be collected 
with the bark from the trunks of trees at all times of the year. 
The protoplasm of the cell is enclosed by a relatively thick 
cell-wall which protects it against desiccation. Protococcus is 
found in all parts of the United States. 

The Yeast Plant or sprouting fungus is a unicellular plant 
which can grow only in sugary or saccharine fluids. There are 
several species of these sprouting fungi, and all are capable of 
exciting alcoholic fermentation. The most easily obtained 
species is the brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisice). 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. THE MORPHOLOGY OF PROTOCOCCUS. 

(a) Note the general appearance of Protococcus, growing on 
a piece of bark from a tree. Observe how it has 
spread over the surface of the bark (rri). 

* Compressed or dried yeast may be used instead of the brewer's yeast. 

117 



Il8 PLANT TYPES. 

{b) With your scalpel scrape off a little, mount in water, and 
examine it {lp). Note the general appearance of the 
cells. 

{c) Note the relation of the cells ; are they solitary or con- 
nected in clusters or colonies (one-cell, two-cell 
stages, etc.) ? 

{d) Are the cells all of the same size ? Sketch one of the 
largest {del. %'), and one of the smallest of the soli- 
tary cells to show their shape and relative size. 

(e) Find as many kinds of colonies or cell-stages {lp) as 
possible, and sketch a colony of each kind. Do you 
find a green coloring matter (chlorophyll) in the cells ? 

B. MINUTE STRUCTURE AND THE EFFECT OF REAGENTS. 

{a) Apply a drop of alcohol* and watch the effect {lp), and 
note the result. 

{b) Examine your preparation more in detail {hp) and deter- 
mine whether there is a nucleus and cell-wall present. 
Where is the chlorophyll found ? Do you find chloro- 
phyll in the cell wall ? In the nucleus ? Sketch a 
typical cell and represent all its structures. 

{c) Apply a drop of iodine* and note the effect (reaction) 
on the different structures of the cell, viz., the cell- 
wall (cellulose); the nucleus and protoplasm. Do you 
find starch present ? 

C. MORPHOLOGY OF THE YEAST PLANT. 

{a) Observe some brewer's yeast. Is it a thick liquid (semi- 
liquid), or a thin liquid ? Note its color. 

{b) Do you find a deposit on the sides and bottom of the 
vessel containing the liquid ? This sediment consists 
of the minute Yeast Plant. 

{c) Place a drop of the Yeast on a clean slide and lay on 

* The instructor should give careful directions on using reagents on the slide. 



GREEN SLIME AND THE YEAST PLANT. I ig 

the cover-glass and examine it (Zip). Note the shape 
of the cells (torulae). 

(d) Are the torulae all of the same size and shape ? Sketch 

one of the largest and one of the smallest. How do 
they compare with the cells of Protococcus in size and 
shape ? 

(e) Are any of the cells connected into clusters or colonies 

(sprout-chains) ? Note how the cells or torulae of the 
sprout -chain are arranged. Compare their arrange- 
ment with that of the Protococcus cells. Sketch one 
or two sprout-chains {hp). 

D, MINUTE STRUCTURE AND THE EFFECT OF REAGENTS. 

(a) Examine the torulae more carefully (Jip) and decide 

whether there is a cell- wall, nucleus and vacuoles. 
Sketch a large torula and indicate its minute structures. 

(b) Do you find any chlorophyll in the Yeast Plant ? A 

plant which contains chlorophyll has the power of 
preparing its own food, which is sugar or starch, 
directly from the elementary substances, — that is to 
say, from the water, earth and air; but plants which 
have no chlorophyll are dependent for their food 
upon other plants or animals. 

(c) Applv a drop of magenta and note the reaction. What 

is the effect on the cell-wall ? Protoplasm ? Nucleus ? 
Vacuoles ? 

(d) Apply on a new preparation a drop of iodine and note 

the results. Do you find starch present r 

(e) Compare Protococcus and the Yeast Plant as to their 

mode of cell multiplication, reproduction. Protococcus 
multiplies bv fission, the Yeast Plant bv budding. In 
which animals did vou find these methods of repro- 
duction ? 
(/) Examine the torulae which about six or eight days ago 



120 PLANT TYPES. 

were sown on a fresh-cut surface of a potato and kept 
under a bell-jar. Do you find torulae (/ip) containing 
small internal cells (ascospores) ? Note number and 
arrangement of the spores. This represents another 
method of reproduction in the Yeast Plant. 
(g) Write a careful description of Protococcus and the Yeast 
Plant, at the close of which enumerate all the points 
of similarity and points of difference in the two plants. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The nature of a unicellular plant and its essential ele- 
ments. 

2. The effect of temperature and food supply on the growth 

of the Yeast Plant. 

3. The formation of carbon dioxide gas. 

4. The function of chlorophyll, starch, cellulose and sugar. 

5. The foods of plants. 

6. The nature and characteristics of a true or typical plant; 

of a saprophyte ; of a parasite. 

7. Morphology and physiology of Bacteria. 

8. A synopsis of the characteristics of Protophyta and a 

list of the classes. 

References . — 5 — 12—18 — 19 — 20 — 26 — 27 — 38 — 43 — 44 — 62 — 66 — 71 — 
79 — 92 — 96 — 108 — 126 — 134 — 147 — 152 — 158 — 169. 



STUDY II. 
A STUDY OF A BROOK-SILK. 

SPIROGYRA QUI NINA. 

As an exat?iple of a simple multicellular plant, which although composed of 
many cells is yet physiologically unicellular. To represent the Zygophytes, 
or unisexual plants. 

Material required. — (i) Fresh Spirogyra in the vegetative condition; 
(2) fruiting Spirogyra, fresh or preserved in equal parts of 90 % alcohol and 
glycerine. Reagents; (1) iodine; (2) glycerine ; (3) alcohol. 

Habitat. 

Brook-silk, or Pond-scum, is a filamentous alga, belong- 
ing to the genus Spirogyra, and is found almost everywhere 
abundant in fresh-water ponds and slowly-flowing brooks. It 
forms masses of long, unbranched, bright-green, silky threads 
which float at the surface or in the water. It is quite slippery 
to the touch. Spirogyra may be found in its vegetating con- 
dition at any time during the warmer seasons of the vear, and 
in this condition is of a bright green color. Its fruiting occurs 
mainly from early spring to the latter part of July. In its fruit- 
ing condition the threads form crinkled and tangled masses of 
a yellowish color. Various species may be found intermixed 
and growing in the same mass. Spirogyra may be kept in the 
vegetative condition throughout the year in aquaria jars in the 
laboratory, by supplying the proper food solution.* Any of 
the larger species will serve for this study. 

* For Sach's Food- solution for green plants see formula in List of Reagents, 

121 



122 PLANT TYPES. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GENERAL CHARACTERS AND GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF 

SPIROGYRA IN ITS VEGETATIVE CONDITION. 

(a) Observe a mass of Pond-silk in the aquarium jar, and 
note its general appearance and color. 

(&) Examine (m) a few threads (filaments) in water in a white 
dish. With your dissecting needles separate the fila- 
ments in order to determine their length. About how 
long are they ? Are all of the same length and diam- 
eter ? Do you find any threads with branches ? 

(c) Place a few filaments in a phial, add some alcohol and 

after six or eight minutes note the result. What does 
this result indicate ? 

(d) Mount a filament in water and examine ( Ip) it. Of what 

is it composed ? How are the cells arranged ? Are 
they uniform in size ? Sketch a portion of the fila- 
ment showing several adjacent cells. 

(e) By careful focusing, examine the internal structures of 

the cell. Note the special bands (chlorophyll bands 
or chromatophores). In which direction of the cell do 
the chromatophores extend ? How many do you find 
in one cell ? 
(/) Trace a filament to the end,* and note any difference 
between the size and form of the end cells and those 
in other parts of the thread. Sketch the terminal cells. 

B. MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE VEGETATIVE FILAMENT. 

(a) Examine a favorable cell (hp) and determine its exact 
shape. How many times does the chlorophyll band 
pass around the cell ? Sketch a cell with its chloro- 
phyll bands (del ij4). 

* The filament may happen to be broken, hence you may not reach the natural end or ter- 
minal cells. 



BROOK SILK. 123 

(6) Examine by careful focusing one of the chlorophyll bands 
and note the small bodies (nodules) which occur at 
intervals. Apply iodine. 

(c) Now observe the nodule again and note the central light 

structure (pyrenoid) and the deep colored bodies* 
(starch grains) surrounding it. What evidence have 
you that the latter are starch grains ? Sketch a chro- 
matophore representing nodules, pyrenoid, and starch 
grains. 

(d) Identify the nucleus and note its position and shape. 

Can you find a nucleolus. Sketch. 

(e) Take a fresh thread and mount in water. Apply glycer- 

ine and watch for the result. What change is the 
protoplasm undergoing ? Sketch the cell, showing 
the cell-wall and protoplasm. 

C. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FRUITING FILAMENTS. 

(a) Observe the general appearance of the plant in its fruit- 

ing condition (Ip), and note the marked contrast to the 
vegetative condition. 

(b) Make a temporary preparation and observe the threads 

which have joined and are connected in pairs (conjugat- 
ing filaments). Note the large round or oval bodies 
(zygospores) which are found in some of the cells. 

(c) Carefully observe {hp) how the conjugating filaments are 

related and note the small tubes (conjugating tubes) 
which connect some of the cells. Do you find conju- 
gating tubes between cells of the same filament ? 

(d) Do you find protoplasm in all the cells? What do you 

presume has become of the protoplasm of the cells 
which are now empty? How were the zvgospores 
formed? 

*Note. — If the plant has not been exposed to the sunlight within the preceding ten or 
tA-elve hours, starch grains may not be present. 



124 PLANT TYPES. 

(<?) Examine a mature zygospore and note its shape, color, 
and the dense wall and contents. Sketch a portion of 
the two conjugating threads and represent the struct- 
ural elements. 

(/) Write a careful description of your observations of Spiro- 
gyra, and enumerate the points of resemblance and 
difference between Spirogyra and Protococcus. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The life history of Spirogyra and its two methods of 
reproduction. 

2. Comparison of Spirogyra with some of its allies, includ- 

ing Diatoms, Desmids, Oscillaria, etc. 

3. Comparison of Spirogyra and Protococcus and the 

Yeast Plant. 

4. A synopsis of the characteristics of Zygophyta and a list 

of the classes. 

References. — 5 — 18 — 19 — 21 — 26 — 36 — 43 — 62 — 79 — 113 — 12 6 — 147 — 

t57 — i58 — i59. 



STUDY III. 
A STUDY OF A GREEN FELT. 

VA UCHERIA SESSILIS. 

As an example of the simplest bisexual plant. To represent the Oophytes or 

egg-spore plants. 

Material Required. — (i) Fresh Vaucheria; (2) Vaucheria preserved in 
equal parts 90$ alcohol and glycerine. Reagents. — (1) Dilute glycerine; 
(2) iodine. 

Habitat. 

Vaucheria, or Green Felt, is an alga which appears as a 
large, dense, dark-green, felted mass of coarse, tubular, 
branching filaments. It may be found in almost every 
locality spreading over the mud in shallow ditches and on 
moist earth near springs, or floating on the surface of ponds 
and in quiet fresh water. Vaucheria may be found at all 
seasons of the year, growing on the soil in flower pots in the 
conservatories. Other species are quite as common as V. 
sessilis, and may be substituted for the latter in the following 
study. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GENERAL CHARACTERS AND GROSS MORPHOLOGY. 

(a) Observe a mass of Green Felt on a flower-pot or culture 

plate, or in the water in an aquarium jar, and note its 
general appearance and color. 

(b) Take a small tuft, and with your dissecting needles 

gently tease it out on the object-slide ; mount in 
water and examine (lp). 

(c) Note the size and appearance {If) of the filament. Can 

you find transverse partitions (septa), marking off the 
tubular threads into cells ? 
125 



126 PLANT TYPES. 

(d) Trace one or more threads to determine the form of the 

natural tip. Sketch the tip, including a portion of 
the thread. 

(e) Carefully search for branches that are given off from the 

main thread. How many kinds of branches can you 
find ? How do they differ ? 

(/) If the Green Felt has been growing on soil, you may 
find root-like processes (rhizoids). Note their shape 
and size. Do they contain chlorophyll ? Sketch a 
rhizoid, including a portion of the filament. 

(g) Look for two short lateral outgrowths or branches of 
peculiar form, and near to each other on the filament. 
One is a curved, cylindrical body (antheridium), or 
male reproductive gonad, and the other an oval body 
(oogonium), or female reproductive gonad.* 

B. MINUTE ANATOMY. 

(a) Examine more carefully (hp) the oogonium. Do you 

find a transverse septum which separates it from the 
protoplasms of the filament ? Look for an oogonium 
which contains a thick-walled, oval reproductive body 
(oospore), or ripe egg. Note the character of its pro- 
toplasm and surrounding cell-wall. Does it contain 
chlorophyll ? Sketch the oogonium. 

(b) Examine carefully (hp) the antheridium. Do you find 

a transverse septum similar to that of the oogonium ? 
Note the appearance of the protoplasm of the anthe- 
ridium, and its cell-wall. Does the antheridium con- 
tain chlorophyll ? Sketch. 

(c) Examine the protoplasm and other contents of the fila- 

ment (hp). Do you find chlorophyll bodies, chroma- 
tophores, in Vaucheria ? Note their form. 

*In V. sessilis there are frequently two oogonia near the same antheridium. In some 
other species there are three to five oogonia associated with one antheridium and situated with 
the latter on a branch of considerable length. 



GREEN FELT. 127 

(d) Observe the refractive bodies (oil globules) usually found 

abundantly among the chromatophores. Do you find 
nuclei.* Sketch (hp) a filament, carefully represent- 
ing all its cell contents. 

(e) Observe the thickness of the wall of the thread. Where 

is the protoplasm most dense ? Apply dilute glycer- 
ine and note result. 

(/) Apply test for starch and note result. 

(g) Note that the form of the vegetable body (plant body) 
of Vaucheria is a branched thread or filament. What 
is the form of the plant-body in Spirogyra ? In the 
Yeast Plant ? In Protococcus ? Any plant body 
which has no true root, stem and leaves, is known by the 
name of thallus. 

(h) Write up a careful description of Vaucheria from your 
notes, and at the close make a summary enumerating 
all the points of resemblance and points of differ- 
ence in Vaucheria and Spirogyra. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The life history of Vaucheria and reproduction of 
oospores and swarm spores. 

2. Morphology of the thallus of Rockweed. 

3. General morphology of Volvox, Water-mould, Mildew. 

4. The nature of a fungus. Life-history and economic 

interest in the fungi belonging to the branch Oophyta. 
5. A synopsis of Oophyta, and a list of the classes. 
References. — 19 — 36 — 44 — 50 — 147 — 158. 

* The nucleus in Vaucheria is seldom seen excepting after the use of special reagents. 

t The uncertainty of the material renders it highly improbable that all the students of a 
class of considerable size should succeed in demonstrating the process of fertilization in 
Vaucheria, yet it is very desirable that it should be observed; hence it is thought best that 
the teacher should secure material in proper condition and give this demonstration in connec- 
tion with the Other Work named on this page. 



STUDY IV. 
A STUDY OF A STONEWORT. 

CHAR A FR A GILTS* 

As an example of a highly organized alga. To represent the Carpophytes or 

spore-fruit plant. 

Material Required. — (i) Fresh specimens of chara ; (2) specimens 
preserved in alcohol ; (3) specimens fixed in 0.2$ chromic acid ; (4) speci- 
mens of Nitella ; (5) a set of the preparations of the apical cell ; (6) a set of 
preparations of cross sections of the antheridium and oogonium. 

Habitat. 

The Stoneworts are plants of considerable size, consisting 
of simple jointed stems, bearing whorls of leaf-like structures, 
which are frequently only single rows of cells. They resemble 
the higher forms of plants, and are among the most highly 
developed of all the algae. Their size varies with the species, 
from a few inches to three feet. They are submerged fresh- 
water plants, found along the sandy margins of lakes and 
ponds, and in swampy marshes and bog-holes, forming dense 
tufts of thread-like stems, and attached by rhizoids, or thread- 
like roots. With very little care these plants may be kept 
growing in the laboratory almost indefinitely. 

* Chara fragilis is selected for this study on account of its abundance and general distri- 
bution ; but the closely allied genus Nitella, is more desirable, on account of its greater 
simplicity of structure. The most prominent distinctions between Chara and Nitella are — 
Chara has leaves in whorls of 6 to 12 with leaflets always single -celled; Nitella has leaves in 
whorls of 5 to 8 with leaflets usually more than one -celled. The sporocarp has a crown of 
one whorl of cells ; that of Nitella a crown of two whorls of cells. Chara has its stem 
strengthened by a firm internal crust of carbonate of lime. The stem and leaves in Chara 
contain a system of cortical cells ; in Nitella no such system is present. 

128 



STONEWORT. 1 29 



LABORATORY WORK. 

A. — GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF THE THALLUS. 

(a) Examine a fresh Chara in water in a white dish or over 
a piece of white paper. Observe its general appear- 
ance, and note how it affects the touch of your fingers. 

{$) Observe the size and plan of the thallus. Note the 
joints (nodes) and the segments (internodes) between 
the joints (m). Are the internodes everywhere of 
uniform length? Observe the summit (apex) of the 
stem and its opposite end (base). 

(c) Observe the circles (whorls) of thread-like organs (leaves) 

on the primary or main axis (stem) of the plant. 
Where, on the stem, are the leaves inserted? Do you 
find any exceptions to your answer? How many 
leaves in the same whorl? Note the cluster of leaves 
(apical bud) crowded together at the apex of the stem. 
Sketch a portion of the stem including two nodes and 
two internodes (X 2). 

(d) Examine the stem at the nodes above the whorl of leaves, 

and note whether you find small shoots or secondary 
axes (branches). Note that the branches are inserted 
in the angle formed by the leaf and the stem (axil of 
leaf). Sketch a branch. 

(e) Examine a leaf (m). Of what does its main axis consist? 

How many internodes do you find in the larger leaves? 
Note the delicate thread-like structures (leaflets) 
attached to the main axis of the leaf. Where are the 
leaflets inserted? Sketch a leaf and its leaflets {del. 2 '). 
(/) Observe (;//) that on some leaves (fertile leaves) there are 
yellowish or orange-colored* structures, the reproduct- 

*In alcoholic specimens the natural colors are not preserved. 



130 PLANT TYPES. 

ive gonads, which are arranged in pairs. Do you 
find some leaves (sterile leaves) on which no such 
structures appear? 
Examine the gonads, and note that one, the male gonad 
(antheridium), is inserted below the whorl of leaflets, 
and the other, the female gonad (oogonium), above 
the whorl of leaflets. Describe the shape of the 
gonads and compare them in color. Sketch a portion 
of a fertile leaf, representing a pair of gonads and the 
adjacent leaflets {del. 2'). 
(h) Observe (m) the delicate hair- like filaments or rhizoids 
attached to the lower portion of the stem. Where are 
they inserted? Do the rhizoids contain chlorophyll? 
Sketch. 

B. MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE THALLUS. 

(a) Mount a portion of the stem in water and examine it (lp). 

Observe the internode and note the surface or outer 
layer of cells (cortical cells). How are they arranged? 
Sketch a patch of cortical cells {del. \y 2 '). 

(b) Examine a cross section* of the stem (lp) and note the 

cortical cells and a large central cell (internodal cell). 
Sketch (del. 1 '). 

(c) Examine a longitudinal section passing through one of 

the nodes (lp). Observe the cells at the nodes (nodal 
cells). How are they related in position to the inter- 
nodal cells? Sketch. 

(d) Examine a fresh sterile leaf (lp) and observe the nodal 

and internodal cells and the large end cell (terminal 
cell). Compare the plan of the leaf with that of the 
stem. Sketch a portion of the leaf including the 
terminal cell. 

* The student may here be taught to make hand sections with a sharp razor, or the 
instructor may have the sections cut in advance, and supply them to the class. 



STONEWORT. I 3 I 

(e) Examine a fresh leaflet {lip) and identify the cell-wall, 
protoplasm, chlorophyll granules, vacuoles, and nucleus. 
Sketch a leaflet representing these structures. 

('/) Examine a terminal cell of a good fresh specimen (hp) 
to observe the movement of the protoplasm.* Focus 
carefully into the central region of the cell, and study 
the directions of the different currents. Sketch an 
outline of the cell wall and represent the currents by 
dotted lines, and their directions by darts. 

(g) Examine (hp) a preparation of a longitudinal section 
through the apex of the stem, and study the size and 
arrangement of the end cells. Note the large, nearly 
hemispherical cell (apical cell) at the end of the stem. 
Sketch the apical cell with the adjacent cells. 

C. MORPHOLOGY OF THE GONADS. 

(a) Examine a fresh, mature spermary, or antheridium (lp). 
Note the stalk by which it is attached to the leaf. 
Study the surface and note the large flat cells (shields), 
which form the wall of the antheridium. Note the 
outline and margin of the shield-cells. Sketch the 
antheridium, representing the shield-cells. 

(p) Remove the cover-glass, crush the antheridium slightly 
and tease it out with your needle and mount in water. 
Study the contents and make out, if possible, the 
cylindrical cell, or handle (manubrium) attached to the 
inner surface of the shield-cell. The manubrium may 
have been broken off in the process of making the 
preparation ; if so, the thicker end is the one which 
was attached to the shield. Now study (hp) the 

* The stamen hairs of Tradescantia will show the movement of protoplasm very satisfac- 
torily, in case sufficiently fresh specimens of Chara cannot be obtained when needed. Nitella 
is more favorable for studying the rotation of protoplasm than Chara. 



132 PLANT TYPES. 

opposite or distal end of the manubrium, and note 
the short cells (head cells) attached to it. Sketch a 
shield and a manubrium with its head-cells. 

( c) Study (lip) the tangled mass of delicate thread like 

structures (spermatic filaments) which have been 
pressed from the interior of the antheridium. Some 
of the filaments may still retain their original attach- 
ment to the head-cells. Represent several filaments 
in vour last sketch. 

(d) Studv a favorable filament and decide whether it is com- 

posed of a single cell or more than one. If the 
antheridium is fully mature and in good condition, 
you may be able to discover minute, coiled, lash-like 
cells (sperm cells or spermatozoids). By careful focus- 
ing, study the exact shape of a spermatozoid. Sketch 
a spermatic filament and a sperm, if you have found 
one. 

(e) Mount a mature ovary or oogonium in water and study 

(lp) it. Note its short stalk. Observe the form and 
surface structure of the oogonium. At its distal 
end note the chimney-like circle of cells (crown). Do 
vou find more than one circle of cells in the crown? 
How many crown cells are there? 

(/) Observe the large opaque structure in the centre of the 
oogonium. Sketch the oogonium, representing care- 
fully the surface appearance and crown. 

(g) If possible, study preparations of cross-sections of the 
gonods, and identify the structures already seen 
bearing in mind their relative position. Sketch a 
cross-section of each gonad. 

(/i) Write a description of the morphology of Chara, and 
make careful drawings of the principal structures. 



STONEWORT. 1 33 



OTHER WORK. 

1. Comparative review of the morphology of Chara and 

Vaucheria. 

2. The life history of Wheat-rusts, Smuts and Black Knot; 

their migration and parasitic habits. 

3. The mode of vegetation and reproduction in such 

saprophytic fungi, as Mushrooms, Puff balls,- etc. 

4. The peculiarity of Lichens. 

5. Sexual and non-sexual reproduction in Carpophyta. 

6. A synopsis of the characteristics of Carpophyta, and a 

list of the classes. 

References . — 5 — 12 — 17 — 18 — 19 — 20 — 21 — 23 — 26 — 35 — 43 — 44 — 46 — 

50— 62 — 73 — 74— 79— 126— 147 — 149 — 153. 



STUDY V. 
A STUDY OF A LIVERWORT. 

MARCHANTIA POLYMORPHA. 

As an example of a highly differentiated thalloid plant which at the same 
ti?ne retains a remarkable degree of si??iplicity . To represent the mossworts 
or Bryophytes. 

Material Required. — (i) Fresh vegetative thalli and both kinds of repro- 
ductive branches ; (2) gemmae growing in a phial of water ; (3) a set of 
preparations of the antheridium ; (4) a set of preparations of archegonia 
in different stages of development. 

Habitat. 

Marchantia is a small, green, flattened, creeping plant whose 
thallus or vegetative body consists of a leaf-like stem about a 
half an inch wide and from one to four inches long. The 
reproductive branches are umbrella shaped, consisting of a 
slender upright stalk supporting a flat disc. Marchantia bears 
the male and female branches on different plants, and is there- 
fore dioecious in distinction from plants which bear both male 
and female gonads in the same plant and are known as monoe- 
cious. The thallus is closely attached to the soil by a large 
number of silken rhizoids. Marchantia is common to all parts 
of the United States. It grows preferably in moist soil, on 
shaded rocks, walks, and fences, sometimes it may also be found 
along old roads and among the grass in exposed places. It 
should be transported to the laboratory attached to the soil, 
and may be kept indefinitely in a moist chamber, if protected 
from the direct rays of the sun. A closely allied form, Lunu- 
laria, can always be had at a greenhouse and may be distin- 

i34 



LIVERWORT. 135 

guished from Marchantia by the form of its gemmule cups ; in 
the latter plant the rim of the cup is a complete circle, while in 
Lunularia it is incomplete, leaving the outline somewhat cres- 
cent shaped 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF THE THALLUS. 

(a) Observe a Liverwort while it is still attached to the sod 
from which it grew. Note the general appearance of 
the plant ; its flattened horizontal thallus and firm 
attachment to the sod. 

{&) Observe particularly the size and shape of the thallus, 
and note its horizontal branches. Does the thallus con- 
sist of nodes and internodes ? Name the points of 
resemblance between the main thallus or stem and its 
branches. 

(c) Observe the indented apex of the vegetative thallus and 
note its mode of branching (dichotomous), by which it 
first diverges into two equal branches, but one soon 
develops more rapidly than the other and becomes 
the main axis or stem. 

id) Examine (m) the vegetative thallus and observe the dis- 
tinctlv marked median line (midrib) which is the main 
axis of the stem or thallus. Note also the expansion 
of the thallus (wings) which extend along either side of 
the midrib. 

{e) Do you find any branches (fruiting branches) which are 
umbrella-shaped ? What is their attitude and where 
are they inserted on the main thallus ? Note the erect 
stalk (pedicel) and flattened disc (receptacle) of which 
the fruiting branches are composed. 

</) Observe the little cups (cupules) which are almost cer- 
tain to be seen on the upper surface of the vegetative 



1 36 PLANT TYPES. 

thallus. Observe (m) their exact shape, and note the 
small flat structures (gemmae) within the cupules. 
Sketch a cupule. 

(g) Observe the silken rhizoids of the thallus. Where are 
they given off ? Mount a few in water and examine 
(Ip). Do you find more than one kind ? Sketch. 

(h) Observe (m) the overlapping scales on the under surface 
of the thallus. These thread-like scales and the rhizoids 
are forms of plant-hairs (trichomes). Mount a few 
scales in water and observe (Ip) their structure. Do 
you find more than one kind ? Sketch. 

B. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE THALLUS. 

(a) Examine the upper surface (pi) of an older portion of 

the thallus and observe the small areas (areolae), and in 
the center of each a small breathing pore (stoma). 

(b) Remove a thin portion from the upper surface tissue 0/ 

the thallus and mount it in water. Study (Ip) this 
surface layer of cells (epidermal cells) and note theii 
shape and contents. 

(c) Study a stoma and observe (Ip) the cells (guard cells) 

which surround it. How many guard cells are there 
and how are they arranged ? Sketch a stoma with its 
surrounding cells. 

(d) Study a cross section of a thallus (Ip) and note the differ-- 

ent kinds of cells. Near the margin, identify the 
upper epidermal cells. Look along the epidermal 
layer for a stoma. Carefully focus and make out 
the number and arrangement of the cells which 
form it. 

(e) Examine the large chamber (air-chamber) into which the 

stoma leads. Note the chains of cells (chlorophyll cells) 
which grow from the bottom of the air-chamber. Note 



LIVERWORT. I37 

the shape and contents of the chlorophyll cells. Sketch 
a chain of chlorophyll cells. 

(/) Observe the thickened and closely packed cells (paren- 
chyma) which form the sides and bottom of the 
air-chamber. Note the shape and contents of these 
cells. Sketch several adjacent parenchyma cells. 

(g) Examine the layer of epidermal cells on the under side 
of the thallus. How do they differ from those in the 
upper layer ? Do you find any stomata ? Sketch a few 
adjacent cells of this layer. 

(h) Study your section in. the region of the midrib. Iden- 
tify the rhizoids, and among them the flat purplish 
structures (scales). Note the form and arrangement 
of the cells in the scales. Sketch one or more 
rhizoids and scales. 

C. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FRUITING BRANCHES, 

{a) Examine (ni) a male branch with the shield-shaped, 
scalloped receptacle (antheridial branch). Observe the 
general shape, margin and color of the receptacle. 
Note the minute antheridia imbedded in its upper sur- 
face. Sketch the antheridial branch {del. 2'). 

{b) Observe the upper and lower surfaces of the receptacle 
{ni). Note the rhizoids and leaf -like scales. Where 
are these inserted ? What resemblance do you find 
between the fruiting and vegetative thalli ? Compare 
the upper surfaces ; the lower surfaces. 

(c) In a vertical section, cut in the plane of the stalk, observe 

{lp) the large cavities (antheridial sacs) and note their 
contents, the anther idium. Sketch a favorable portion 
of the section ; also make a separate* sketch of an 
antheridium as seen in the antheridial sac. 

(d) Examine (ni) the female branch with the spreading, 



138 • PLANT TYPES. 

strap-shaped rays (archegonial branch). Note the gene- 
ral shape of the disc, the number of its rays and the 
color. 

(e) Examine (m) the under side of the receptacle and note 
the peculiar grooves radiating from the stalk. How 
are these grooves related to the rays in regard to 
position ? 

(/) Observe the form of the stalk and note its deep, longi- 
tudinal furrow. Sketch the archegonial branch 
{del. 2'). 

(g) Carefully examine (m) the grooves in the under side of 
the receptacle, and note their contents. With your 
scalpel carefully remove the contents of one of the 
grooves and mount in water, and examine (lp). Note 
the flask-shaped organs (archegonia). 

(h) Examine a well developed archegonium and note its 
three regions, — (1) the short stalk, (2) the ventral 
portion or body, and (3) the tubular portion or neck. 
Observe also in the central region a spherical body 
(oosphere). Sketch an archegonium, representing care- 
fully any cell-boundaries which you have been able 
to make out (del. 2 f ). 

D. MORPHOLOGY OF THE GEMMA. 

(a) With the point of your scalpel remove one or two gem- 

mae from the cupule and mount in water. Observe 
(lp) their form and general appearance. Note the two 
deep notches (vegetative notches) on opposite edges, 
and the scar where the pedicel was attached. Sketch 
outline of gemma (del. 1'). 

(b) Observe the cellular structure of the gemma. Do you 

find chlorophyll ? Where is chlorophyll not present ? 
Note the oil-bodies in the cells along the edge. Do 



LIVERWORT. 139 

you find cell boundaries ? Represent the cellular 
structures in your outline sketch. 

(c) Examine (/p) a gemma which has been growing in a 

phial of water for about a week. Study the changes 
which have taken place. Make a careful sketch of the 
gemma (del. i% f ). 

(d) Write a description of the morphology of Marchantia 

and make careful drawings of the more important 
structures of the plant. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. Comparative review of the morphology of Marchantia and 

Chara. 

2. The function of the stomata, air-chambers, rhizoids, etc. 

3. The life-history of Marchantia. Reproduction by gemmae. 

4. The general morphology of a Moss. 

5. Comparative review of the thallophytes and lower crypto- 

gams. 

6. A synopsis of the characteristics of Bryophyta and a list 

of the classes. 

References. — 5 — 12 — 17 — 18 — 19 — 21 — 26 — 44 — 95 — 126 — 147 — 154. 



STUDY VI. 
A STUDY OF A COMMON FERN. 

P TERIS A Q U I LIN A * 

As an example of a vascular cryptogam, or higher fiowerless plants. To 
represent the Fernworts, or Pteridophytes. 

Material Required. — (i) A set of fresh specimens in fruiting condition ; 
(2) alcoholic specimens ; (3) prepared sections of the stem ; (4) prepared 
sections of the root ; (5) prepared sections of the stipe ; (6) prepared sections 
showing the cellular structure of the leaf; (7) germinating spores; (8) 
prothallia.t 

Habitat. 

The common Bracken or eagle-fern {Pteris aquilinci) is one 
of the most widely distributed of the higher plants. In the 
United States it occurs under various conditions, being found 
in densely shaded groves, in open woodland among the under- 
growth, on the hillside, and in open pastures. In general, 
however, it favors damp, shady places. While in some coun- 
tries it grows to the proportions of a tree, throughout the 
northern United States it does not usually exceed the height 
of from two to three feet. The Common Bracken lives from 
year to year (perennial). In cold climates the leaves (fronds) 
die to the ground at the close of each season, while the under- 
ground stem (rhizome) survives the winter and sends forth a 
new set of fronds in the spring. 

In the course of its reproduction, the Fern passes through 

* Any species of Pteris, and in fact most any common Fern may be substituted for the 
one here named. 

fit is desirable to have the sets of preparations on hand, even if the student is requirtu 
to make his own. 

140 



COMMON FERN. 14 I 

a cycle of two generations (alternation of generation), repre- 
senting a non-sexual plant (sporophore) and a sexual plant 
(oophore, or prothallium) . The sporophore is the conspicuous 
fern-plant generally known, and bears on the lower surface 
of its frond minute seed-like structures (spores) which are capa- 
ble of germinating and developing into the oophore or true 
sexual plant. The oophore or prothallium, as it is usually 
called, is a small, inconspicuous, cushion-like plant which bears 
minute antheridia and archegonia, whose product after fertili- 
zation develops ini:o the sporophore or the well-known fern- 
plant. 

The Fern is the lowest plant Type which represents all the 
members, or parts of the plant body found in higher plants, viz. : 
a true root, stem, leaves and trichomes. In the Fern we meet 
for the first time with true woody (fibro-vascular) tissue. Mate- 
rial necessary for studying the Fern can usually be found in the 
green-houses throughout the year, if the necessary stock is not 
available from other sources. The spores of most Ferns retain 
their vitality for more than a year and may be kept dry until 
needed. For germination the spores of the lady fern (Asple- 
nium filix-fcemind), or those of the ostrich fern (Onoclea stru- 
thiopteris) will perhaps prove most satisfactory. The spores 
may be sown on clean, moist sand, or on porous earthenware 
and kept under a bell-jar. With favorable conditions germi- 
nation will begin in four or five days. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. — GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE FERN-PLANT (SPOROPHORE). 

(a) Observe the general appearance of the Fern-plant. 
Which parts belong below and which above the surface 
of the ground? Note the attitude or directions in 
which these parts extend. Note the color of the dif- 
ferent pnrts of the plant. 



142 PLANT TYPES. 

(b) Examine the brown underground stem (rhizome), and 

note its form, size and direction. Note the light line 
(lateral line) extending along each side. Do you find 
nodes and internodes in the rhizome ? 

(c) Observe the slender appendages (roots) springing from 

the rhizome. Note the general appearance of the roots; 
their size as compared with the rhizome ; their branches 
and color. Have the roots any definite arrangement 
and where are they attached ? Do you find rhizoids ? 

(d) Observe the green spreading leaves (fronds) arising from 

the rhizome. Note that the frond consists of a leaf- 
stalk or main axis (stipe) and the blade or leaf proper 
(lamina) which is subdivided like a feather (pinnate) 
into a number of larger lobes (pinnae) which are again 
subdivided into still smaller lobes or leaflets (pinnulae). 
Note that each pinnule or leaflet has a thickened axis 
or central rod, the midrib, extending through its blade. 
Note the branches (veins) given off by the mid-rib. 

(e) Again, observe the surface of the rhizome and note the 

decaying stipes, and scars where older stipes were 
attached. Examine and compare the ends of the 
rhizome, and note the large buds, apical buds, growing 
at one end. What do you infer to be the habit or 
manner of growth of the rhizome ? 

(f) Do you find thin, brown leaf-scales* (ramenta) covering 

portions of the surface of the rhizome. What do you 
infer to be the function of the ramenta ? 

I MORPHOLOGY OF THE RHIZOME. 

(a) Examine (m) a cross section j* of a rhizome of medium 
size and note the general outline and appearance. Can 
you recognize the lateral lines ? Sketch outline (del. 2). 

* Some other species of Ferns develop the ramenta more than Pteris. 
f There is some advantage in using sections not stained for par. a, b, c. 



COMMON FERN. I43 

(b) Study the interior of the section (m) and note that it con- 

sists of different regions or bands of tissue. How many- 
kinds of tissue can you distinguish ? 

(c) Observe (m) the (i) outer dark band or system of tissue, 

epidermis ; (2) the strands of tissue which form an 
incomplete brown ring (sclerenchyma) in the interior ; 
(3) the scattered strands and circles of yellowish tissue 
(fibro-vascular bundles) ; and (4) the lighter colored 
tissue, parenchyma, which everywhere surrounds the last 
two named systems. Now represent in outline these 
systems in your sketch for (a), p. 142. 

(d) Observe that the smaller fibro-vascular bundles are 

arranged in an outer circle, and that the large strands 
are located between the bands of sclerenchyma and 
near the center of the outer circle. 

(e) Examine more carefullv (lp) a stained cross section of 

the rhizome, and study the epidermis. Note the outer 
layer of thickened cells, the epidermis proper, and that 
inside of this layer the epidermal system gradually 
blends into the parenchyma. 

(/) Do you find that the epidermis gives off trichomes at 
different points ? Are these trichomes many-celled 
or single-celled ? Note the leaf-sheath, or ramenta, if 
you find them represented in your section. Make a 
sketch of a portion of the epidermis in a favorable 
region including one or more trichomes (del. i 1 /^ '). 

(g) Examine (lp) the strands of sclerenchyma. Can you 
find small patches of sclerenchyma outside of the 
main strands ? Note the thick-walled cells of which 
the sclerenchvma is principally composed. Sketch a 
small portion of this tissue {del. ij4')- 
{h) Examine ( lp) the fibro-vascular bundles. Note that 
the cells which constitute its border are arranged 



144 PLANT TYPES. 

in two layers or rows, — the outer row (bundle sheath) 
consisting of small flattened cells, and the inner 
row (phloem sheath) of somewhat larger cells and 
containing starch. Note that within this double 
sheath there are several kinds of cells and tubes 
(vessels). Note the large tubes with woody walls 
(scalariform vessels). Sketch a portion of a fibro- 
vascular bundle, representing the various kinds of cells 
and vessels (del. i%'). 
(/) Examine the fundamental tissue or parenchyma and note 
the form and contents of the cells. Does it contain 
Starch? Sketch a portion (del. i}4')* 

C— MORPHOLOGY OF THE FERTILE FROND. 

(a) Examine (m) a cross section of the stipe and compare 
it with that of the rhizome. What systems of tissues 
do you find represented in the stipe ? Do you find 
trichomes. Sketch the section (del. 1). 

(I?) Remove a small patch of epidermis from the lower sur- 
face of the blade and mount in water. Observe (hp) 
the shape of the epidermal cells. Note their nuclei. 
Do you find trichomes ? Sketch one or more trich- 
omes. 

(c) Examine (Ip) the stomata, and note the form of the 
guard-cells. Compare the stomata of Pteris with those 
of Marchantia. Sketch a stoma with its surrounding 
epidermal cells. 
(a) Examine (m) the margin of a fertile leaflet or pinnule 
(sporophylla) and observe that its edge has folded 
under, forming a hem or tube, 7-eceptacle, along the 
margin. 

(e) Observe (ni) shape of the lid-like cover (indusium) 
formed by the incurved edge of the pinnule. 



COMMON FERN. I 45 

(/) Examine (lp) a small portion of the receptacle and ob- 
serve a row or ridge (sorus) to which are attached 
minute oval bodies (sporangia). Sketch a portion of the 
receptacle, showing indusium, sorus, and sporangium. 

(g) Examine (m) a preparation of sporangia, and observe 
their general shape and appearance. Observe that a 
sporangium consists of a globular portion (capsule) 
and a short stalk, pedicel. Sketch. 

(//) Examine {lp) an unbroken sporangium, and observe the 
shape and arrangement of the cells. Note the row of 
dark cells (annulus) in the margin of the capsule. 
Does the annulus extend along the entire margin ? 
Sketch a sporangium representing the cells. 

(/) Examine a capsule in which you find the wall broken 
and its contents set free. Where, with reference to 
the annulus, did the wall of the capsule rupture ? 
What do vou presume is the function of the annulus ? 
Sketch a sporangium with ruptured capsule. 

(J) Examine (hp) the minute seed-like, reproductive cells 
(spores) which have escaped from the ruptured sporan- 
gium. Note their form and appearance. Sketch a 
few spores. 

0. MORPHOLOGY OF THE PROTHALLIUM (oOPHORE). 

(a) Examine (lp) some germinating spores and observe their 

ruptured coverings. Note the blunt cylindrical pro- 
trusion (protonema) which is the first appearance of the 
young plant. Do you find one or more rhizoids 
attached to the protonema ? 

(b) Carefully observe and note the number of cells in the 

protonema. Examine others. Describe the cellular 
structure. Sketch a favorable protonema. 

(c) Mount in water and examine (m) the young plant 



I46 PLANT TYPES. 

which has developed from a protonema (odphore or 
prothallium). Observe its size, shape, and general 
appearance. Note the rhizoids. Sketch the pro- 
thallium. 

(d) Examine (Ip) the prothallium with its lower surface 

upward and note the shape of the cells and their struc- 
ture. Sketch the outline of the prothallium, represent- 
ing a few cells along the margin {del. \y 2 '). 

(e) Carefully focus and examine the central region of the 

prothallium and look for small spherical gonads, 
anther idia, which usually develop from the surface of 
the prothallium in the region where the rhizoids are 
attached. Look for the other kind of gonads, arche- 
gonia, usually situated nearer the notch (sinus) of the 
prothallium. If you have been able to find the anthe- 
ridia and archegonia, represent them in your sketch of 
the prothallium. 
(/) Write up a description of the Bracken Fern and make 
careful drawings of the principal structures of the 
sporophore and oosphore. 

OTHER WORK. 

1. The life-history of the Fern. 

2. Comparative review of the Fern and Marchantia. 

3. Characteristics of Equisetum, Fern, and Club-moss. 

4. Trichomes and the development of spores. 

5. A synopsis of the characteristics of Pteridophyta. 

6. Comparative review of the types of cryptogams, with 

special reference to the development of root, stem, 
leaves, and trichomes. 
, 7. Comparative review of cryptogamic types with reference to 
sexual reproduction. 

References . — 5 — 6 — 10—12 — 17 — 18 — 19 — 20 — 21 — 26 — 43—44 — 62— 
68 — 79—126— 137— 147 — 155. 



STUDY VII. 
A STUDY OF A SCOTCH PINE. 

PI N 'l/S SYLVESTRIS. 

As an example of the lower form of seed-plants. To represent the Gymno- 
sper?ns. 

Material Required. — (i) Male flowers fresh and preserved in alcohol; 
(2) female flowers fresh and preserved in alcohol ; (3) succulent cones pre- 
served in alcohol ; (4) ripe cones dry; (5) ripe seeds dry; (6) young roots 
preserved in alcohol ; (7) leaves tresh and preserved in alcohol ; (8) two- 
year-old branch in alcohol ; (9) fresh twigs. 

Habitat. 

The Scotch Pine, sometimes wrongly called " Scotch Fir," 
is one of the most familiar of out cultivated " evergreens." 
It is a tree of moderate size, and at least while young, of beau- 
tiful symmetry. The trunk continues through the central part 
of the tree to the highest point, and can be readily distin- 
guished from the branches ; this characterizes it as excurrent, 
in distinction from one which is lost by subdivision into its 
branches, and is known as a deliquescent trunk. The bark of 
the trunk and main branches is rough and scaly and of a 
brownish color. The foliage consists of needle-shaped leaves 
which are arranged in pairs and are from five to ten centimeters in 
length, slightly twisted, and covered with a whitish powder. The 
Scotch Pine bears two kinds of reproductive branches, known 
as the male flowers, and the female flowers ; the former are 
conspicuous yellow clusters which are borne at the base of 
voung shoots: the latter are inconspicuous pinkish oval clus- 
ters which project slightly beyond the ends of voung shoots. 

i47 



I48 PLANT TYPES. 

The cones, or " fruit," of the Scotch Pine are only from five to 
twelve centimeters in length, and require two years to develop. 

The Scotch Pine represents the lower of the two great 
classes of "seed plants" or Spermaphyta ; it belongs to the class 
Gymnospermae, or " naked-seeded " plants, the seeds or ovules 
being borne in open carpophylls. The other great class, includ- 
ing the highest of all plants, the Angiospermae, or " covered- 
seeded" plants, in which the carpophyll forms a closed cavity 
known as the ovary. The Pines are of very great importance 
on account of their valuable timber, turpentine, and resinous 
secretions. 

The Scotch Pine and Austrian Pine bear a close resemblance, 
but the following characteristics of the Scotch Pine will dis- 
tinguish it from the Austrian : the Scotch Pine has smaller 
leaves ; leaves covered with a whitish powder ; free end of cone 
scales terminate in protuberances ; cones smaller than in 
Austrian Pine. The Austrian Pine is a good substitute in 
this study.* 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE SCOTCH PINE. 

(a) Observe the general form and appearance of the Scotch 
Pine. Note its central stem or trunk, and the arrange- 
ment of the large branches along the stem. Is the 
trunk a central shaft (excurretit) readilv traced to the 
apex or highest point of the tree ; or is it lost by sub- 
division into its large branches or secondary trunks 
{deliquescent) ?f 

*The proper time for collecting ripe male and female flowers is about June 1 ; the 
large cones and those of less than a year old may be collected during the early spring. 

f The student will hardly fail to find access to Scotch or Austrian Pines or other con- 
ifers in the parks of the vicinity, and should be encouraged to make these observations 
oi the form and appearance of the tree. He should at the same time compare the Scotch 
Pine with other " evergreens," and with other trees. If possible, all of Sec. A. of this 
study should be outdoor work. 



SCOTCH PINE, I49 

(b) Observe the main branches given off by the trunk. Are 

they few or numerous ? Make a diagram representing 
the trunk and the arrangement of the main branches 
(del. 2'). 

(c) Examine a branch of this season's growth with its leaves 

(shoot). Can you recognize a shoot of last season's 
growth? A two-year-old shoot? 

(d) At the apex of a shoot observe the large apical bad and 

several smaller ones (lateral buds), which are unde- 
veloped branches. Note the scales-leaves which con- 
stitute the covering of the bud. Sketch the apical 
bud, including the lateral buds (X 2). 

(e) Examine the condition and appearance of the bark on 

the trunk and main branches. Observe the scales 
(scale-leaves) on the branches, and compare them on 
shoots of different ages. 

(/) Examine a small branch and observe the very short 
branches (dwarf branches) which bear the leaves. Note 
the green needle-like leaves (foliage leaves). How 
many foliage leaves are borne on each dwarf branch ? 
Find the average length in centimeters of six or eight 
foliage leaves. 

(<£") Observe the scale leaves at the base of the foliage leaves. 
How are thev arranged ? Note the black sheath which 
binds the base of the foliage leaves together. Sketch 
a dwarf branch representing the scale leaves and foli- 
age leaves. 

B. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FOLIAGE LEAF. 

(a) Observe carefully the shape of the foliage leaf, its proxi- 
mal or attached end (base) and its distal enc^(apex). 
What is the shape of the apex ? Pass your finger from 
the apex toward the base. What do you observe ? 



150 PLANT TYPES. 

(b) Examine (m) the edge of the leaf and note your obser- 

vation. Draw a leaf between your thumb and finger 
and note that it is covered by whitish, waxy bloom or 
powder (glaucous). Do you know of any other plant 
whose leaves are glaucous ? 

(c) Examine (m) the sides of the leaf and decide which is 

the upper side. Note the series of small dots, the 
stomata. Sketch a portion of the leaf representing the 
edge, surface, and position of the stomata (X3). 

(d) Examine (lp) a cross section of foliage leaf and observe 

its outline. Which margin represents the upper, and 
which the lower side of the leaf ? Sketch the outline 
of the section {del. ij4') and indicate which is the 
upper and which is the lower side. 

(e) Identify (lp) the epidermal tissue, bundle sheath enclos- 

ing two fibro-vascular bundles, and represent these in 
your outline sketch. 

(f) Observe (lp) the small openings (resin passages), sur- 

rounded by a circle of thick-walled cells. Represent 
the resin passages in your sketch. 

(g) Examine (lp) carefully the fibro-vascular bundles, and 

note that each consists of two nearly equal parts, — 
one the woody tissue (xylem) and the other the 
bast (phloem). Which is toward the upper and 
which toward the lower surface of the leaf ? Sketch a 
fibro-vascular bundle, representing and labeling the 
xylem and phloem {del. i'). 

C. MORPHOLOGY OF A YOUNG BRANCH. 

(a) Examine a cross-section of a two-year-old branch, and 
study its structure. Of how many different rings of 
tissue does it consist ? Observe the central region of 
parenchyma (pith). Note its outline and structure. 



SCOTCH PINE. 151 

(b) Observe the outer zone of tissue (bark), and note its 
structure. Note the row of large resin ducts which 
extends through the bark. 

{c) Study the zone of firm xylem tissue extending between 
the bark and the pith {wood). Do you find that this 
zone of wood is marked off into two concentric zones 
(rings of growth). What do you presume in regard to 
the comparative age of these rings of growth ? 

(d) Observe the many radiating lines extending from the 

pith to the bark (medullary rays). Observe their 
origin at the edge of the pith. Note the small resin 
ducts in the wood. How are they arranged ? Sketch 
the section showing the different tissue systems 
{del. itf'). 

(e) What points of similarity have you discovered between 

the structure of the leaf and that of the branch ? 

D. MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAMINATE OR MALE BRANCH. 

(a) Examine a young branch which contains at its base a 

compact cluster of small, lateral, sporophyll-bearing 
branches (flowers). Observe that each flower is a yel- 
low, scaly, cone-like body. Note the arrangement of 
the flowers along the main branch (inflorescence). 

(b) Observe the general outline of the inflorescence. Note 

that the flowers are sessile in their attachment to the 
branch (catkin or spike). 

(c) Do you find foliage leaves on the staminate shoot ? 

Note their position. Where along the main axis do 
you find scale-leaves? Sketch a staminate shoot, 
representing the inflorescence, foliage leaves, and 
scale leaves (del. 2'). 

(d) Carefully remove one of the flowers from its flower clus- 

ter or spike, and observe (///) its form and structure. 



152 PLANT TYPES. 

Note that it is composed of scale-like sporophylls 
(stamens) arranged along a central axis. Sketch a 
flower (X 2). 

(e) With your forceps remove one or two of the stamens, 

mount in water and examine (Ip). Observe its general 
shape, its base and apex. Has it a foot-stalk (fila- 
ment) or is it sessile ? 

(f) Observe (lp) two swollen sacs, the sporangia (pollen 

sacs) on one side of the stamen. Look for their con- 
tents, the spores (pollen grains).* 

(g) Are the sporangia on the outer (lower) or inner (upper) 

side of the stamen or sporophyll ? 
(h) Examine (hp) a preparation of the pollen grains, and 
observe its general shape and appearance. Note the 
central cell and the two lateral wing-like protrusions. 
Can you distinguish a nucleus ? Sketch a pollen 
grain (del. 1 '). 

E. MORPHOLOGY OF THE PISTILLATE OR FEMALE BRANCH. 

(a) Examine a young shoot containing pistillate branches, 
and look for small, brown, scaly structures, the spo- 
rophyll-bearing branches (female flowers or cones). 
How many of these flowers or cones do you find ? 
Where, with reference to the dwarf branches, are the 
cones situated ? 

{B) Observe (m) the form and general appearance of the 
female flower. Has it a stalk (peduncle), or is it ses- 
sile ? Sketch a portion of the vegetative branch, 
including a dwarf branch and a cone. 

(e) Observe (m) that the cone is composed of a large num- 
ber of thickened fruit-scales or female sporophylls 
(carpels), which are provided with a prominent me- 

*The pollen sacs may already have opened and the pollen escaped. 



SCOTCH PINE. 153 

dian projection (keel). Is the keel on the upper or 
lower surface of the carpel? Note the thin scales 
(bracts). Where are they situated ? 

(d) Examine (lp) a preparation of carpels, and observe at 

the base of the keel two enlargements (ovule) or un- 
developed seeds. Can you detect a small opening 
(micropyle) leading into each ovule ? Sketch a car- 
pel showing the keel and the ovules. 

(e) Examine a yearling cone and observe its color, size, 

and shape. Observe the distal free ends of the car- 
pellary scales. Sketch. 

(f) Examine a longitudinal section of a yearling cone. 

Observe the central axis and the ovules along its 
sides. Identify the bracts and carpels, and note their 
relative thickness. Sketch. 

(g) Examine a two-year-old cone which is now mature and 

ready to scatter its ripened ovules (seeds). Observe 
its" size and color. Observe the size of the carpels, 
and note the markings on their exposed distal ends. 
(ft) Observe the spiral arrangement of the carpels on the 
central axis. In about the thickest part of the cone 
select a carpel, and with your pencil mark it " a." 
Now find one that is situated in line directly above 
this, and mark it "b." Beginning at " a" trace the 
spiral row of carpels around the cone until you reach 
"b," and note how many revolutions of the cone you 
have made. Now return and, beginning again with 
"a," count the carpels which you passed over before 
reaching "b." Write the number of revolutions as 
the numerator of a common fraction, and the num- 
ber of carpels as the denominator. This fraction 
expresses the law or order of the arrangement of the 



154 PLANT TYPES* 

carpels or sporophyll on the axis (phyllotaxy),and is the 
method used for indicating the rank or arrangement 
of leaves on the stem. 

(/) Study a carpel which has been removed from the cone, 
and note its color, shape and woody structure. On 
the upper side note the two depressions where the 
ovules were situated. Sketch the upper and the lower 
view of the carpel. 

(/) Examine the fullv matured ovule or seed, and observe 
its shape and appearance. Note the wing-like ex- 
pansion and the surface markings. What function 
do } t ou attribute to this expansion ? Sketch a seed 

OTHER WORK. 

i. Pollination and Fertilization in the Pine. 

2. Life-history of the Scotch Pine. 

3. Comparative review of the morphology and reproduc- 

tion in the Scotch Pine and Fern. 

4. The nature of a seed contrasted with that of a spore. 

5. The characteristics of different tvpes of Gymnosperms. 

6. A synopsis of the characteristics of Gymnospermae and 

a list of the orders. 

References. — 4 — 5 — 18 — 19 — 43 — 68. 



STUDY VIII. 
A STUDY OF A TRILLIUM. 

TRILLIUM RECURVATUM. 

As an example of a lower, typical flowering plant with seeds enclosed in 
xn ovary. To represent the class Angiosper?nce. 

Material Required. — (i) Fresh plants (entire) in bloom; (2) alcoholic 
specimens of roots, stems, flowers, and fruit ; (3) sets of preparations show- 
ing cross sections of stem, roots, and fruit. 

Habitat. 

Trillium is a representative of the Lily order, one of the 
lowest of the class Angiospermae. It is easily recognized by its 
naked "stem," from eight to thirty centimeters in height, bearing 
a whorl of three broad, netted-veined leaves and a single flower. 
The stem is an underground root-stock or rhizome, and sends 
up annually a single branch which dies to the ground at the 
close of the season. Trillium develops a flower of the typical 
kind, consisting of floral envelopes and reproductive organs in 
sets of modified leaves, arranged in whorls on the expanded 
apex of a short branch. The Trillium is found generally 
throughout the United States. The species named above, T. 
recurvatum, occurs in rich, damp woods, and blooms in the 
early part of May, the time varying slightly with locality and 
season. Any species may be used in this study. 

LABORATORY WORK. 

A. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF TRILLIUM. 

(a) Examine a fresh specimen of the entire plant. Observe 
the underground stem or rhizome, the part attove 
i55 



I56 PLANT TYPES. 

ground, its aerial branch. Note the size and general 
appearance of the Trillium plant. 

(b) Examine the stem and observe its nodes and internodes. 

Can you find lateral or terminal buds? Do you find 
scales or any modification of leaves? 

(c) Observe the character of the roots. Where are they at- 

tached? How many for each node? Do they give off 
branches? Sketch the rhizome and its roots (del. 2'). 

(d) Observe the aerial branch, and note its size and color. 

Does it consist of nodes and internodes? Observe the 
scale leaves at the base of the branch, and note their 
form and structure (m). Where are they attached? 
Sketch. 

(e) Observe the whorl of leaves at the distal end of the aerial 

branch, and note their number, form, size, and arrange- 
ment on the branch. Observe the flower above the 
whorl of foliage leaves, and note its form and color. 
Sketch the aerial branch, including the leaves and 
flower {del. 2^ '). 

B. STRUCTURE OF THE STEM AND AERIAL BRANCH. 

(a) Study (Ip) a cross section of a portion of the rhizome, 

and observe the systems of tissue. Note the very nar- 
row cortical band of tissue along the margin, the fun- 
damental parenchyma, containing a large amount of 
food material and the scattered fibro vascular bundles. 
Sketch a portion of the section representing the differ- 
ent kinds of tissue. 

(b) Study (Ip) a longitudinal section taken through the grow- 

ing tip of the rhizome. Observe the encircling sheath of 
thickened bracts, and in front the growing point. Can 
you recognize the growing tips of young roots and 
branches? Note the difference. 



TRILLIUM. 157 

(c) Study (Ip) a cross section of the branch, and identify the 

three principal kinds of tissue. Note the arrangement 
of the flbro-vascular bundles, and the relative position 
of the phloem and xylem. Sketch the section {del. 1 '). 

C— FORM AND STRUCTURE OF THE FOLIAGE LEAF. 

(a) Examine a leaf and observe its general outline. Note 
the form of its base, apex, and margin. Is the leaf 
sessile, or has it a petiole? 

(I?) Examine the leaf from its lower surface, and observe the 
plan and arrangement of its frame work (venation). 
Note its large ribs and their branches (veins), and the 
smaller branches (m) of the veins (veinlets). Has the 
leaf a prominent midrib ? 

(e) Do all the principal ribs run nearly parallel from the 
base to the apex (parallel-veined), or do they diverge 
at the base and send their branches in every direction 
(netted-veined), forming a network throughout the lam- 
ina or blade of the leaf? Sketch a leaf (x %). 

(d) Examine and compare the two surfaces of the leaf, and 

note in what respects they differ in appearance. Do 
you find trichomes (m)? 

(e) Strip off a small piece of epidermis from the lower sur- 

face of the leaf, mount it in water, and examine it (Ip). 
Study the epidermal cells, the stomata and their guard 
cells. Sketch a stoma, including the adjacent epider- 
mal cells. 

(/) Now strip off a piece of epidermis from the upper sur- 
face of the leaf, and study its cells. Sketch a small 
portion. What difference do you discover between 
the epidermis of the lower and upper surface? 

(g) Make a transverse section of a portion of the leaf across 
one of the larger ribs. Mount it in water, and study 



I5o PLANT TYPES. 

{lp) the fibro-vascular bundle. Toward which surface 
is the phloem and toward which the xylem? 

(Ji) Examine (Ip) the structure of the lamina, and observe the 
epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces. Observe 
the parenchyma or tissue between the two epidermal 
layers (mesophyll). 

(*) Study (lp) the mesophyll cells along the upper layer of 
the epidermis (palisade cells). Observe their shape and 
arrangement. Sketch a small region of palisade cells. 

(/) Mount a small portion of a scale from the base of the 
aerial branch and examine it (lp). Is it parallel or 
netted-veined? Note the dark spots, and examine 
their contents. Crush one of them, and observe the 
needle-shaped crystals (raphides). 

D. THE FLOWER. 

(a) Observe the general form and appearance of the flower. 

Note the several leaf-like parts arranged in different 
whorls or sets. Note the slender stem or peduncle 
which bears the flower. At what point on the branch 
is the peduncle attached to the branch ? 

(b) Observe the distal and somewhat enlarged end of the 

peduncle, receptacle, upon which are situated the parts 
of the flower. 

(c) Observe the whorls of the leaf-like parts in the flower 

(floral envelope or perianth). Note the lower (outer) 
circle (calyx) and the upper (inner) circle of the floral 
envelopes (corolla). 

(d) Note the number of separate parts (sepals) in the calyx. 

Note the number of parts (petals) in the corolla. How 
are the petals situated with reference to the sepals ? 
Is a petal always found attached directlv above the 
attachment of a sepal (opposite) ; or is its point of 



TRILLIUM. 159 

attachment over the interval between the sepals 
(alternate) ? 

(e) Observe a whorl of sporophylls, the stamens, situated 
above the petals. Are they less or more leaf-like in 
appearance than the floral envelopes ? Note the num- 
ber of stamens. In how many circles are they arranged ? 
Are the stamens opposite to or alternate with the petals? 

(/) Observe a central column situated above the stamens 

(pistil), formed by several carpels more or less united. 

How many carpels evidently formed the pistil ? What 

evidence have you ? 
(g) Make a sketch of the flower, representing all its circles 

of parts. 
(h) Carefully examine one of the sepals and note its color, 

general outline, venation, and the form of its base and 

apex. Is the sepal sessile or petiolate ? Sketch a 

sepal. 
(/) Examine a petal and determine the same points. Sketch. 

(/) Examine a stamen and observe its color and general 
form. Note the filament and its pollen-bearing sacs 
(anther). Sketch. 

(k) Examine (Ip) a cross section of the stamen through the 
anther and note the lateral pockets, the pollen sacs. 
Can you explain how the leaf or sporophyll has modi- 
fied to form the pollen sacs ? 

d 

(/) Identify in your section the epidermis, parenchyma, and 
fibro-vascular bundles. Sketch the section [del. 1 '). 

(m) Examine (hp) some pollen grains and note their color 
and shape. Note their surface markings. Sketch 
several pollen grains. 

(n) Compare a stamen of Trillium with one of Scotch Pine 



[60 PLANT TYPES. 

and name the points of resemblance and points of 
difference. 

(<?) Examine the pistil and observe its general form and 
appearance. Observe the lower enlarged portion, 
ovary, formed by the union of several carpels, and con- 
taining the ovules. Note its prominent ridges. 

(j>) Observe the portion of the carpel above the ovary (style) 
and at its distal end (m) its numerous spongy branches 
(stigmas). Sketch the pistil, showing ovary, style and 
stigma (X 2). 

(g) Remove one of the styles, mount it in water and examine 
(lp). Observe the stigmas, and note the character of 
their surface. Do you find any pollen grains lodged 
on a stigma? Sketch a portion of a stigma showing 
the appearance of its surface. 

(f) Examine a cross section of the ovary and observe its 
general appearance. Is it composed of one carpel 
(simple ovary), or of several carpels (compound ovary) ? 
Can you identify the edges and middle portion of the 
carpels ? How many cavities does the ovary contain 
(one-celled, two-celled ovary, etc.) ? 

(s) Observe the ovules and note the surfaces along which 
they are borne (placentae). Are the placentae situated 
• along the wall of the cavity (parietal placenta) or in its 
central part (central placenta) ? 

(/) Observe- the tissues in 1 he carpels. How many fibro- 
vascular bundles do you find in each carpel ? Make 
a careful sketch of the cross section of the ovary, rep- 
resenting all its parts {del. 1 '). 

(it) In terms of morphology which of the plant members 
does the stamen represent ? Is it a leaf or some modifi- 
cation of a leaf (phyllome) ; a stem or some modifica- 



TRILLIUM. l6l 

tion of a stem (caulome) ; a plant hair or some mod- 
ification of a plant hair, trichome ; a root or some 
modification of a root? What is the pistil? The rhiz- 
ome ? The rhizoid ? The aerial branch ? The pollen 
grains? The spores in the fern ? The ovules ? 

OTHER WORK. 

i. The life-history of Trillium. 

2. Comparative review of the morphology of Trillium and 

Scotch Pine. 

3. Trichomes and the origin of spores, pollen grains, and 

ovules. 
4 Comparative review of the general morphology of the 
plant types studied. 

5. Characteristics of the endogens and exogens. 

6. Methods of pollination and the process of fertilization in 

Spermaphytes. 

7. A synopsis of the characteristics of Angiospermse and a 

list of the orders. 

References. — 2 — 5 — 7 — 9 — 12 — 18 — 19 — 21 — 26 — 39 — 44 — 47 — 62 — 64 
68 — 76 — 79 — 99 — 100 — 102 — 103 — 118 — 119 — 142. 



STUDY IX. 
A STUDY OF SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 

COMMON BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris). 
INDIAN CORN (Zea mays). 
SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris). 

To show the germination of a monocotyledon, a dicotyledon and a 
poly cotyledon. 

Material Required. — (i) Ripe seeds of a Common Bean;* (2) mature 
fruit of the Indian Corn ; (3) ripe seeds of the Scotch Pine. 

Concerning the Material. 

The seeds should be soaked in water at least ten hours 
before the external features and the embryos are studied. 
Those seeds from which seedlings are to be studied, should be 
sown in advance in order to have the seedling ready when 
this study is begun. The seeds may be sown in clean moist 
sand of four or five inches in depth and kept in a warm 
place. The tray or box containing the sand may be kept in a 
window, under the direct rays of the sun, provided the surface 
be protected by a moist cloth or paper until the seedlings 
appear. The common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), 
on account of its rapid growth after germination, has some 
advantages over the Bean for this study, and the common 
Wheat (Triticum vulgare) is a good substitute for the Indian 
Corn. The Scotch Pine does not germinate as readily in this 
country as some other species of Pine. Seedlings of the Pine 
may usually be obtained from the gardeners. 

*The large variety known as "butter bean" is desirable. 

162 



SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 163 

LABORATORY WORK. 

MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEED AND SEEDLING. 
A. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDS. 

(a) Examine a bean and note its size, shape and color. 
Observe the scar (hilum) on one edge, left by the seed- 
stalk (funiculus) to which the bean was attached in the 
"pod" or ovary. 

(p) Near the hilum observe (m) a small opening (micropyle), 
and note its exact position. Observe the outer cover- 
ing (seed-coat). With the point of your scalpel cut 
through the seed-coat and remove a small piece of it, 
and note its thickness. 

(c) Study the external characters of a grain of Indian corn 

and observe the difference between its two sides. Can 
you find a hilum, funiculus, and micropyle? Examine 
its covering. 

(d) Compare the external features of the bean and grain of 

corn with those of the seed of the Scotch Pine, and 
note the points of resemblance and points of differ- 
once. Sketch side by side these three seeds, faith- 
fully representing all their external features (X 2). 

B. MORPHOLOGY OF THE EMBRYO. 

(a) Remove the seed-coat from a soaked bean, by carefully 
cutting along the sides with the point of your scalpel. 
Observe the large thickened seed leaves (cotyledons), 
and note their appearance and position. How many 
are there ? 

{/)) In the region of the hilum observe the young plant 
(embryo), and note its relation to the cotyledons. 
What do you suppose to be the function of the cotyle- 
dons ? Carefully separate the cotyledons, allowing 
the embryo to retain its attachment to one of them. 



1 64 PLANT TYPES. 

(c) Study the embryo and observe its size, form, and color. 
Note the conical portion, the primitive stem (caulicle), 
and observe its relation to the cotyledons. Observe 
the flattened portion of the embryo (plumule), contain- 
ing the first set of true foliage leaves, and the rudi- 
mentary stem above the first node or attachment of 
the cotyledons. Note the position of the plumule, in 
what direction does the caulicle extend with reference 
to the position of the micropyle ? 

(d) Remove the external covering of the grain of corn and 

examine it. This represents not only the seed-coat 
but also the wall of the ovary; hence a grain of the 
Maize is a ripened ovary with its contents (fruit, in the 
true or botanical sense). 

(e) Examine (Ip) a section of the fruit, taken longitudinally 

through the median plane of the embryo. Observe 
the two layers of the covering. Note the outer layer 
(pericarp), representing the wall of the ovary, and the 
inner or seed-coat. What is the botanical fruit of the 
Bean Plant ? What important differences between the 
fruit of the Bean Plant and that of the Indian Corn ? 
(/) Observe the embryo and note its form and appearance. 
Where is it situated and how related to the remaining 

o 

large yellow portion of the fruit (endosperm) ? Observe 
the part of the embryo which is in contact with the 
endosperm (scutellum). Note the sheath of leaves or 
apical bud. Where is it situated ? Have you found 
cotyledons in the grain of corn ? Sketch the section 
representing endosperm, embryo, and scutellum. 
(g) Examine a seed of Scotch Pine. Remove the seed-coat 
and note its character. Examine (m) the embryo and 
note the form, size, and general appearance. Iden- 
tify endosperm, caulicle, and radicle. How many 



SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 1 65 

cotyledons do you find ? How are the cotyledons 
related to one another ? Sketch side by side, the 
three embryos which you have now studied, and name 
all the parts represented in each sketch (del. ij£). 

C. MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS. 

(a) Examine a seedling of the Bean and observe the stem, 

roots and cotyledons. Note the relative size of these 
parts and their general appearance. 

(b) Study the roots. Do you find one principal or main 

root (taproot) which gives off other roots or branches ; 
or do you find, instead of a taproot, many thread-like 
roots arising from about the same place (multiple 
roots) ? 

(c) Observe (m) the branches given off by the root. Remove 

a small portion of a branch, mount it in water and 
examine it (lp), and observe its tip. Sketch. 

(d) Observe the young stem and note the distance below the 

cotyledons. How many nodes and internodes has the 
stem ? Observe the relative length of the internodes. 

(e) Examine the cotyledons and observe their form and 

color. Do you find any remains of the seed-covering 
in connection with the young plant ? 

(/) Study the first pair of foliage leaves, and note the 
outline, base, apex, margin, and venation. Are the 
leaves parallel-veined or netted-veined ? How are the 
leaves arranged on the stem ? Sketch a foliage leaf 
(del. 2 / ). 

(g) Now examine a seedling of the Corn. Study the roots, 
stem, and leaves, as you did in the Bean, and make 
corresponding sketches. 

(h) Compare the seedlings of the Bean and Corn with refer- 
ence to their root, stems, form and venation of their 
leaves, and their leaf-arrangement or phyllotaxy. 



I 66 PLANT TYPES. 

(z) Name the points of difference between the seedlings of 
the Bean and Corn. 

(/) Examine the seedling of the Scotch Pine or Austrian 
Pine and study it as you were directed to study the 
seedling of the Bean, and compare the Pine seedling 
with those of the Bean and Corn. Sketch, side by 
side, the three seedlings which you have now studied, 
observing their relative size. 

OTHER WORK. 

i. Comparative review of the seedlings studied in the labor- 
atory. 

2. The morphological significance and the physiology of 

germination. 

3. Natural agencies in the dispersal of fruits and seeds. 

4. Classification of the true or botanical fruits, with examples. 

5. The nature and miscellaneous character of the " edible" 

fruits, with examples. 

6. The nature, function and correlation of the members of 

the plant body, and the transformation of energy in the 
plant. 

7. The distinguishing characteristics of a mineral or inor- 

ganic object. 

8. The distinguishing characteristics of a plant. 

9. The distinguishing characteristics of an animal. 

10. The relation between the inorganic and organic king- 
doms : between the animal and plant kingdoms. 

References. — 12 — 18 — 19 — 29 — 32 — 40 — 43 — 55 — 57 — 59 — 61 — 65 — 69 
— 75 — 90 — 93 — 96 — 97 — in — 113 — 132 — 139 — 143 — 166 — 168. 



PART III. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 
AND PLANTS. 






NOTE. 

It will be observed that each animal and plant selected as a 
Type in the Studies is chosen, in the following Synopses, as a repre- 
sentative of the Class to which it belongs. 



A SYNOPSIS 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 

This synopsis is a modification of the classification adopted by Dr. C. 
Claus. Although it is not the latest, it seems rather better adapted to the 
present purpose than later systems. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS. 

A. — Protista — The lowest organisms, not distinctly animal or plant. Homo- 
geneous structure. No nucleus known to be present. 

B. — Protozoa — Unicellular animals, or simple colonies of similar organisms, 
each possessing one and frequently more than one, nucleus. Reproduction 
by fission or budding. 

C. — Metazoa — Multicellular animals, consisting of a large number of cells which 
form a community or individual. Each individual is composed of a few or 
many kinds o'f cells, each kind performing a special function for the 
individual. Sexual reproduction. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRANCHES. 
GROUP B— PROTOZOA. 

Branch I. 
Protozoa — Characteristics of the group. 

Class A. — Rhizopoda: Amceba, Foraminifera, Heliozoa* 
Class B. — Infusoria: Paramazcium, Vortlcella. 
Class C. — Gregarinida: Gregarina. 

GROUP G— METAZOA. 

Branch II. 

Pohfera — A body composed of many cells capable of amoeboid movements, more 
or less independent, and collectively supported by solid skeletal 
parts. There are internal canal systems and external pores. 
Class A. — Spongia: Spongilla, Gran tin. 
169 



170 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 

Branch III. ^ 

Ccelenterata — Radially symmetrical animals. Body consists of two laVCTs, ecto- 
derm and endoderm. No true body cavity. A central cavity is present 
which serves both for digestion and circulation, and has only one 
external opening (mouth). The nervous system is entirely absent or 
but little specialized. 

Class A. — Hydrozoa: Hydra, Hydrozoa, Jellyfish, 
Class B. — Actinozoa: Sea-anemone, Coral polyp. 
Class C. — Ctenophora: Ctenophore. 
Branch IV. 
Echinodermata — Animals with apparently radial symmetry, but really bilaterally 
symmetrical. An exoskeleton of calcareous spicules and plates. An 
alimentary canal with two external openings. A true body cavity. A 
true water- vascular system. A nervous system. A complicated 
metamorphosis. 

Class A. — Crinoidea: Sea-Lily. 

Class B. — Asteroidea: Starfish. 

Class C. — Echinoidea: Sea-Urchin. 

Class D. — Holothuroidea: Sea- Cucumber, Synapta. 

Branch v. 
Vermes — Bilateral animals with unsegmented or uniformly segmented bodies. 
Well marked anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral regions of the 
body. No segmented lateral appendages. A dermal muscular system. 
Three germ-layers and usually no primitive stripe. 

Class A. — Platyhelminthes : Flat-worms, Tape-worm. 
Class B. — Nemathelminthes: Round-worms, Trichina, 
Class C. — Annelida: Earth-worm, Leech. 
Class D. — Rotatoria: Rotifer. 
Branch VI. 
Arthropoda — Bilaterally symmetrical animals, with bodies not uniformly seg- 
mented. Jointed segmented appendages. Body with a chitinous 
exoskeleton. Heart situated above the alimentary canal. Brain 
(supra-cesophageal ganglion) and segmented ventral nerve cord. 
Class A. — Crustacea: Crayfish, Cyclops, Barnacle, 
Class B. — Arachnida: Spider, Scorpion, Mite. 
Class C. — Onycophora: Peripatus. 
Class D. — Myriapoda: Centipede. 

Class E. — Insecta: Wasp, Beetle, Butterfiy, Grasshopper. 
Branch VII. 
Mollusca — Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented animals. Usually a calcareous 
univalve or bivalve shell. No locomotory skeleton. Heart with ven- 
tricle and two auricles. The central nervous system consists of the 
paired cerebral, visceral, pleural, and pedal ganglia. 



SYNOPSIS OF BRANCHES. I7I 

Class A. — Lamellibranchiata : Clam, Oyster, Pecten. 
Class B. — Scaphopoda : Dentalium. 
Class C. — Gasteropoda: Snail. 
Class D. — Pteropoda: Pteropod. 
Class E. — Cephalopoda: Squid, Cuttle-fish. 
Branch VIII. 
Molluscoidea — Bilateral, unsegmented animals with crown of ciliated tentacles or 
spirally coiled buccal arms. Usually attached and enclosed by a cell 
or bivalve shell. One or more ganglia connected by a pharyngeal 
ring. 

Class A. — Bryozoa: Cristatella. 
Class B. — Brachiopoda: Brachiopod. 
Branch IX. 
Tunicata — Bilateral, sacular, or barrel-shaped animals with a gelatinous or carti- 
laginous mantle completely surrounding the body. Pharyngeal 
respiration and a distinct sacular heart. A simple nerve ganglion. 
Marine, fixed and free organisms. 
Class A. — Tethyodea: Ascidian. 
Class B. — Thaliacea: Salpa, Doliolum. 
Branch X. 
Vertebrata — Bilaterally symmetrical animals with internal skeleton ; notochord or 
backbone ; brain and dorsal nervous cord separated from body cavity , 
never more than two pairs of limbs. 

Class A. — Pisces : Amphioxus, Lamprey, Shark, Perch. 
Class B. — Amphibia : Concilia, Salamander, Frog. 
Class C. — Reptilia: Snake, Lizard, Turtle. 
Class D. — Aves: Duck, Pigeon, Ostrich. 
Class E. — Mammalia: Opossum, Cat, Man. 

A SYNOPSIS OF THE CLASSES OF VERTEBRATA. 

Class A. 
Pisces — Aquatic, cold-blooded vertebrates; exoskeleton of scales; permanent 
gills; median fins and paired pectoral and pelvic tins ; heart consisting 
of an auricle and ventricle. 

Order I. — Leptocardii: Amphioxus. 
Order II. — Marsipobranchii : Petromyzon, Lampreys. 
Order III.— Selachii: Shark, Skate, Pay. 
Order IV. — Ganoidei: Sturgeon, Car-Pike. 
Order V. — Teleostei: Perch, Cod, lid. 
Order VI. — Dipnoi: Ceratodus, Protopterus. 
Class B. 

Amphibia — Cold-blooded vertebrates; usually no exoskeleton; two occipital 
condyles ; heart consisting of three cavities ; pulmonary and branchial 
respiration. Development with metamorphosis. 



172 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 

Order I. — Apoda: Coecilia. 

Order II. — Caudata: Kecturus, Newt, Salamander. 

Order III. — Batrachia: Toad, Frog. 
Class C. 
Reptilia — Cold-blooded vertebrates with exoskeleton of scales or bony plates; 
one occipital condyle; heart with three, or indistinctly four cavities, 
exclusively pulmonary respiration, embryo with ammion and allontois. 

Order I. — Ophidia: Snake. 

Order II. — Lacertilia: Lizard. 

Order III. — Chelonia: Turtle, Tortoise. 

Order IV. — Crocodilia: Crocodile, Alligator. 
Class D. 
Aves — Warm-blooded, oviparous vertebrates with exoskeleton of feathers; one 
occipital condyle ; heart with four complete cavities ; right aortic arch 
persists; anterior limbs organized for flight, posterior for locomotion 
on land or water; three eyelids; pulmonary respiration. 

Order I. — Natatores (Swimming birds) : Swan, Gull. 

Order II. — Grallatores (Waders) : Plover, Snipe. 

Order III. — Gallinacei (Fowls) : Quail, Peacock. 

Order IV. — Columbine (Pigeons) : Dove, Pigeon. 

Order V. — Scansores (Climbers): Woodpecker, Parrot. 

Order VI. — Passeres (Passarines) : Sparrow, Swallow, Lark. 

Order VII. — Raptatores (Birds of prey) : Owl, Buzzard, Eagle. 

Order VIII. — Cursores (Runners): Ostrich, Cassowary. 
Class E. 
Mammalia — Warm-blooded viviparous* vertebrates with exoskeleton of hairs ; 
double occipital condyle ; heart with four chambers ; red blood 
corpuscles double concave ; complete diaphragm ; pulmonic respi- 
ration; suckle their young. 

Order I. — Monotremata: Ornithorhynchus. 

Order II. — Marsupialia: Kangaroo, Opossum. 

Order III. — Edentata: Armadillo, Sloth. 

Order IV. — Cetacea: Whale, Manatee. 

Order V. — Perissodactyla : Horse, Rhinocero. 

Order VI. — Artiodactyla : Pig, Deer, Buffalo. 

Order VII. — Proboscidia: Elephant, Mastodon. 

Order VIII. — Rodentia: Mouse, Beaver, Rabbit. 

Order IX. — Insectivora : Hedgehog, Mole. 

Order X. — Pinnipedia: Seal, Walrus. 

Order XL — Carnivora: Cat, Dog, Wolf. 
• Order XII.— Chiroptera: Bat. 

Order XIII. — Prosimiae : Le??iurs. 

Order XIV. — Primates: Ape, Man. 

*The Monotremes lay eggs ; hence oviparous. 



A SYNOPSIS 

OF THE 

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

This synopsis is intended for reference in connection with the study of 
the Plant Types. It gives, in a general way, the characteristics of the 
Groups and Branches of the Cryptogams, and more fully of the Orders of 
the Flowering Plants. It will give the student a general notion of the 
natural relationship of plants and an understanding of the scheme of sys- 
tematic classification. An attempt is made in the arrangement to co-ordinate 
the Groups, Branches, and Orders in accordance with the latest views of 
some of our best authorities. The classification here adopted is, with some 
modification, that given by Professor Bessey in his text-books on Botany. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS. 

A. — Thallophytes — Plants with no distinction of stem and leaves, Plant body 

usually a thallus, and small. 
B. — Bryophytes (Moss-worts) — Plants usually with distinction of stem and 
leaves, but with no woody system. Always chlorophyll-bearing. Leaves never 
bearing spores. 
C. — Pteridophytes (Fern-worts) — Plants with a woody stem, but not producing 

seeds. Flowerless plants with leaves bearing spores. 
D. — Spermaphytes (Seed-plants) — Plants which produce seeds. Flowering plants 
with highly complex systems of tissue. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE BRANCHES. 

GROUP A— THALLOPHYTES. 

Plant body usually a thallus or small, but sometimes large. No true stem, leaf 
or root. 

Branch I. 
Protophyta— (The Sexless Plants). The lowest, simplest, and most minute 
plants. Chiefly aquatic. Unicellular or cells in loosely united masses. 
No sexual cells known. Reproduction by fission and endo-spores. 
Class A. — Myxomycetes (Slime-moulds).* 
Class B. — Schizomycetes (Bacteria and Yeast-plants). 
Class C. — Cyanophycese (Green Slimes). 

* Note. — The Myxomycetes are regarded by good authorities as belonging more 
properly to the animal forms of life. 

173 



174 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

Branch II. 

Zygophyta — (The Unisexual Plants). Plants extremely variable in size and 
complexity of structure. Aquatic and chlorophyll-bearing, or sapro- 
phytic. Sexual reproduction present. Very little if any difference 
in form, size, color and origin of the male and the female cells. 
Class A. — Zoosporeae. 
Class B. — Conjugateae (Yoke-weeds). 
Branch III. 

Oophyta — (The Egg-spore Plants). Plant-body variable in size and general 
appearance. Aquatic and chlorophyll-bearing. Saprophytic and para- 
sitic. A considerable difference between the male (antheridium) and 
the female (oogonium) sexual cell in size and appearance. 
Class A. — Zoosporeae. (Valvox.) 
Class B. — (Edogonieas. 
Class C. — Cceloblasteae (Green Felts, Water-moulds, Mildews and 

White rusts). 
Class D. — Fucaceas (Rock-weeds). 
Branch IV. 
Carpophyta — (The Spore-fruit Plants). Plant-body a thallus, well developed 
excepting in the parasitic and saprophytic forms. A spore-fruit which 
is the result of fertilization. 
Class A. — Coleochaetae. 
Class B. — Florideas (Red seaweeds). 
Class C. — Ascomycetes (Sac-fungi). 
Class D. — Basidiomycetes (Puff-balls and Toad-stools). 
Class E. — Characeae (Stone-worts). 

GROUP B—BRYOPHYTES. 

Branch v. 
Bryophyta — (Characters of the Group.) 

Class A. — Hepaticae (Liver- worts). 
Class B. — Musci (Mosses). 

GROUP C—PTERIDOPHYTES. 

Branch vi. 

Pteridophyta. — (Characters of the Group.) 
Class A. — Filicinas (Ferns). 
Class B. — Equisetinae (Horntails). 
Class C. — Lycopodinae (Lycopods). 

GROUP D—SPERMATOPHYTES. 

Branch VII. 
Spermaphyta — (Characters of the Groups. 

Class A. — Gymnospermae (Gymnosperms) . Seeds not enclosed in 
an ovary, but naked upon a carpellary in the form of a scale, 
bract, or disc. 



SYNOPSES OF ORDERS. 175 

Fruit a cone or berry. 
Order I. — Cycadaceae (Cycads). 
Order II. — Coniferae (Conifers). 
Order III. — Gnetaceae (Joint-Firs). 
Class B. — Angiospermae (Angiosperms). Seeds enclosed in an 
ovary formed by carpellaries. 

ARTIFICIAL KEY. 

The aim of this Key is to give the student an introduction to the 
practical use of an "Artificial Key" in identifying plants. It is not com- 
plete in the sense of including every known wild plant of a given locality, 
but for the object in view, it is believed, will serve much better than the 
complete Manuals of Botany. The Key is made as simple as possible, 
consistent with accuracy, and embraces sixteen Orders, twenty-eight of the 
most important Families, fifty common Genera, and sixty-eight representa- 
tive Species. These are among the most common plants and found gener- 
ally throughout the United States. 

The instructor, by glancing along the right-hand margin, can readily 
observe what plants are included in the Key and can see to it that such 
plants are provided for practical study and identification. The Glossary is 
an absolute necessity and the student should be required to make constant 
reference to it as long as he has the least doubt concerning the meaning of 
a term. In the following Key the names of Families appear in full-face, 
those of genera in Italics, and those of species in Roman type. 

CLASS B. — ANGIOSPERMS. SYNOPSIS AND KEY TO THE ORDERS. 

DIVISION A— MONOCOTYLEDONS. 

Stem never with woody bundles arranged in concentric layers, but scattered 
without any definite order ; leaves usually parallel-veined; parts of the fioiuer 
a vitally in threes, never in fives ; embryo with one cotyledon. 

A. Ovary Superior. 

(a) Flowers with the ordinary envelopes, usually regular. 
Order I. 
Alismales. — Water Plantain, etc. — Parts of the flower all distinct. Perianth, 2 
(3 fam.) or 3-parted or more; stamens, i-indefinite ; ovaries usually several 
or many, i-celled, i-ovuled; herbaceous water plants ; occasionally 
delicate and nearly colorless herbs of the tropics. 



I76 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

Order II. 

Liliales. — Lily, Spider-wort, etc. — Perianth, 3-parted ; glum aceous, partly or 
(8 fam.) usually entirely petaloid, rarely irregular ; stamens 3-6; styles 1-3; 
ovary becoming a 1- usually 3-celled capsule or berry. Plant often 
bulbous, with usually narrow leaves, (p. 181.) 

(b) Flowers usually spadaceous. 
Order III. 

Aroidales. — Arum, etc. — Inflorescence a spadix, usually enveloped in a spathe. 
(5 fam.) Perianth never petaloid, usually abortive or inconspicuous. Flowers 
often unisexual; fruit superior; leaves and plants usually large, 
but small and floating in one family, (p. 182.) 
Order IV. 

Palmales. — Palm, etc. — Inflorescence a spadix. Perianth as in Order III. 
(3 fam.) Fruit large or very large; laminae broad-branched, pinnate or 
flabelliform ; trees or shrubs. 

( c) Flowers glumaceous. 
Order v. 

Glumales. — Grass, Sedge, etc. — Flowers glumaceous and in the axils of scales 
(5 fam.) which are arranged in spike lets, or occasionally with an inconspic- 
uous 3-parted perianth; stamens 1-6, usually 1-3 ; ovary 1-3 celled, 
and z-3-seeded. Grass-like plants. 

B. Ovary Inferior. 

(a) Flowers usually regular. 
Order VI. 

Hydrales. — Frog's Bit. — Perianth 6-parted; regular stamens 3-12; ovaries infe- 
(1 fam.) rior, 3 or more, and i-seeded ; unisexual or polygamous ; small water 

plants. 
Order VII. 

Iridales. — Amaryllis , Iris, etc. — Perianth occasionally irregular, 3 or 6-parted, 
(7 fam.) usually petaloid ; stamens 3 or 6, in one family only 1-5 pollen bear- 
ing; styles z-3; fruit variable, 3-celled in northern plants. Plants 
often with equitant leaves, occasionally climbing and with ribbed and. 
netted-veined, petioled leaves, (p. 182.) 

(b) Flowers very irregular. 
Order VIII. 

Orchidales. — Orchis, Lady Slipper. — Perianth 6-parted, very irregular ; fertile sta- 

(2 fam.) mens 1 or 2, more or less united with the style into a common column ; 

ovary inferior, twisted and i-celled with many small seeds, (p. 183.) 

DIVISION B— DICOTYLEDONS. 

Stem with distinct bark, wood, afid pith which are concentrically arranged; 
netted-veined leaves ; parts of the flower commonly in fives or fours, seldom in 
threes ; embryo with a pair of cotyledo?is or several {Pines) cotyledons. 



SYNOPSES OF ORDERS. 1 77 

A. Flowers Choripetalous. 

(a) Stamens usually more nuinerous than the petals, inserted on 
the receptacle. 

(i) Herbs ; stamens 12-in definite. 
Order IX. 
Ranales. — Crowfoot, Barberry, Water Lily, etc. — Usually bisexual. Perianth 
(8 fam.) with both calyx and corolla, rarely apetalous ; parts of the flower 
arranged spirally or in whorls which are usually dimerous or trimer- 
ous; stamens rarely definite; ovaries i-many, separate; seeds 
i-many. (p. 183.) 

(2) Aromatic shrubs or trees. 
Order x. 

Laurales. — Laurel, etc. — Flowers mostly unisexual ; apetalous ; stamens free 
(3 fam.) or monodelphous; ovary superior, i-celled, i-seeded. Aromatic 
herbs, shrubs or trees. 

(3) Herbs ; stamens usually 5 or 6. 
Order XI. 

Parietales. — Mustard, Violet, Poppy, etc. — Flowers bisexual; perianth with both 
(10 1am.) calyx and corolla ; regular or irregular; stamens definite or indefi 
nite; ov3.ry[usually i-celled, with parietal placental, (p. 183.) 

(4) Shrub or trees, except frequently m Order XII. flowers 
usually unisexual, soviet'unes perfect. Ge?ierally apetalous. 

Order XII. 
Urticales. — Including Malvales. Xettle, Mallow, Linden, etc. — Perianth 

(7 fam.) commonly present 3-9-parted, and calyx-like, occasionally with both 
calyx and corolla ; stamens few to indefinite, often in the corolla 
bearing families, united into a column ; ovary superior, i-many- 
celled. Bark often mucilaginous or very tough, (p. 184.) 

(5) Herbs or shrubs. Flowers very minute, usually perfect. 
Order XIII. 

Piperales. — Pepper, etc. Flowers perfect or unisexual and in spikes; stamens 
(3 fam.) 6-20; ovary superior , and i-celled and 1 -seeded ; mostly herbs; some 
aquatic ; often pugnent. 

(6) Herbs. Flowers usually unisexual, occasionally perfect, 
rarely with corolla. Juice milky. 

Order XIV. 

Euphorbiales. — Spurge, etc. — Flowers mostly unisexual; sepals present or absent ; 
(10 fam.) stamens variable in number; ovary 2-niany-celled, superior ; plants 
usually with milky juice. Occasionally shrubs or tre 



I78 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

(7) He?'bs without previous characters. Flowers often apetalous, 
generally perfect. 
Order XV. 
Caryophy Hales. — Pink, Goose-foot, Buck-wheat, etc. — Calyx usually present 
(7 fam.) corolla occasionally ; stamens usually of a different number from 
sepals ; ovary superior, i-celled, seeds 1 or more, basal or bo?-ne on 
a central placenta, occasionally several celled, with axial placenta. 
Occasionally shrubs. 

(b) Stamens commonly on a disc ; variable i?i number, often only 
a few, never ma?iy except rarely in Order XVI. 

(1) Herbs ; staniens 10. 
Order XVI. 

Geraniales. — Geranium, Rue, Flax, etc. — Flowers often irregular, 4or5~parted; 
(ti fam,) stamens often twice the number of petals; ovary superior, entire, 
lobed, or of nearly separate carpels. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, often 
strong sce?ited. (p. 184.) 

(2) Climbing shrubs ; stamens 5. 
Order XVII. 

Celastrales. — Vine, Staff-tree, ete. — Flowers regular, perfect; stamens usually 
(4 fam.) the same in number as the petals, alternate or opposite to them ; 
ovary superior, entire; usually shrubs or trees, often climbing, gen- 
erally with simple leaves, (p. 184.) 

(3) Shrubs or trees ; stamens variable. 
Order XVIII. 

Sapindales. — Including Amentales and Quernales. — Maple, Walnut, Oak, etc. 

(12 fam.) Perianth often absent or represe?zted by scales, occasionally prese?it ; 

inflorescence commonly contracted, most commonly one or both kinds 

of flowers in anient s; stamens very variable in number (3-20) ; 

ovary i-several celled, usually superior ; fruit often a nut. (p. 185.) 

Order xix. 

Santalales. — Sandal-wood, etc. — Ovary inferior; shrubs or trees, rarely herbs, 

(3 fam.) mostly parasitic. 

Order XX. 

Olacales. — Holly, etc. — Flowers regular, Stamens as in Order XVIII; ovary 
(3 fam,) superior, entire, i-many celled ; shrubs and trees, often evergreen. 
Usually tropical. Sepals rarely distinct, petals and stamens usually 
on the calyx. 

(c) Stamens variable, usually equal to the number of petals, 
occasionally more numerous, usually on the calyx. 



SYNOPSES OF ORDERS. 179 

(i) Flowers 4-parted ; stamens usually 8. 
Order xxi. 

Myrtales. — Myrtle, Evening Primrose, etc. — Flowers tetramerous, regular; 
(6 fam.) stamens twice as many as petals, or in two whorls, or by branching, 
very numerous ; ovary usually inferior, syncarpous ; placenta axial ; 
leaves simple and usually entire. 

(2) Flowers, j-parted, apetalous. Herbs. 
Order XXII. 

Asarales. — Birthwort, ete. — Flowers apetalous, mostly 3-parted; stamens defi- 
(2 fam.) nite.ovary inferior, usually 6-celled and many-seeded. Herbs, (p. 185.) 

(3) Flowers usually 4-parted, apetalous shrubs or trees. 
Order XXIII. 

Daphnales. — Mazer eum, etc. — Usually apetalous, flowers perfect; tetramerous; 
(4 fam.) calyx petaloid; stamens in one or two whorls; ovary superior, 
i-celled, with a single seed ; trees or shrubs. 

(4) Flowers ^-parted, not in umbels, in some families irreg- 
ular. 

Order xxiv. 
Rosales. — Rose, Pulse, Saxifrage, etc. — Flowers mostly regular, occasionally 
(8 fam.) irregular; pentamerous, occasionally tetramerous; stamens 5-30, 
often united; carpels one or more, usually free in bud, sometimes 
united afterwards with calyx-tube or enclosed in the swollen top of 
the peduncle; styles usually distinct; fruit variable, in one large 
family (Leguminosae) a legume; leaves, often compound. Herbs, 
shrubs, or trees, (p. 185.) 

(5) Flowers small, 5 or 4-parted, in umbels or corymbs; 
stame?zs 4 or 5. 

Order XXV. 

Umbelalles. — Parsnip, Dog-wood, etc. — Perianth 4 or 4-parted; stamens as many 
(3 fam.) as petals and alternate with them; a nectiferous disc between 

stamens and style ; ovary inferior, i-many-celled ; flowers in umbels 

or corymbs. 

(6) Flowers usually many-parted. 
Order XXVI. 

Ficodales. — Cactus, etc. — Perianth usually many-parted; sepals and petals often 

(2 fam.) alike; petals sometimes wanting; stamens usually many; ovary 

mostly inferior, i-many-celled ; mostly fleshy herbs, often stemless. 

7) Flowers usually large ; ovary usually inferior. 
Order xxvii. 

Passiflorales. — Passion Flower, Gourd, Begonia, etc. — Flowers usually regular; 
(7 fam.) stamens variable, often united; ovary usually inferior, syncarpous, 
i-several-celled, with parietal placentae; herbs, shrubs or trees, 
often trailing or climbing. 



180 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

B. Flowers Gamopetalous. 

(a) Corolla regular ; leaves usually alternate excepting Phlox. 
(i) Shrubs or shrubby plants ; stamens usually twice as 

many as petals. Seeds many. 
Order XXVIII. 
Ericales. — Heath, etc. — Flowers regular; stamens as many or twice as many as 
(3 fam.) the petals, free from the corolla; ovary superior, 2-many-celled, 
style one. (p. 186.) 

(2) Herbs ; stamens as many as petals and opposite to them. 
Order XXIX. 

Primulales. — Flowers mostly regular ; pentamerous; stamens usually 5 , opposite ; 
(4 fam.) ovary superior, i-celled (2-celled in Plantaginaceae) ; leaves alter- 
nate, often radical, (p. 186.) 

(3) Shrubs or trees ; stamens usually alternate with petals. 
Seeds few. 

Order xxx. 

Ebenales. — Ebony, etc. — Flowers regular; 4-8-parted ; stamens twice as 
(3 fam.) many as petals, or more numerous, usually alternate with the 
petals; ovary superior; 2-many-celled; seeds usually soHtary i?i 
the cells ; shrubs or trees with alternate leaves. 

(4) Herbs ; flowers 5-parted ; stamens 5, alternate with the 
petals ; leaves usually alternate, occasionally opposite. 

Order XXXI. 

Polemoniales. — Phlox, Borrage, Night-shade, etc. — Flowers regular, pentamer- 
(5 fam.) ous; stamens 5, alternate with petals; ovary superior, 2-several; 

celled; leaves usually alternate, (p. 186.) 

(b) Corolla usually irregular and more or less 2-lipped. 

(1) Ovary 2 or 4-celled and seeds solitary. 
Order xxxii. 

Lamiales. — Mint, Verbena, etc. — Flowers irregular, usually bilabiate; stamens 
(3 fam.) usually 2 or 4; ovary superior with solitary seeds in the 2-4 cells; 
plants with square stems and opposite leaves, often aromatic. 

(2) Ovary 2,-celled, seeds never solitary. 
Order xxxill. 

Personales. — Fig-wort, etc. — Flowers irregular, usually bilabiate, stamen 4 or 5; 
(8 fam.) ovary superior, with many seeds in the cells ; leaves various > not 
aromatic. 

s (c) Corolla regular ; leaves opposite. 
Order xxxiv. 

Gentianales. — Gentian, Milk-weed, Olive, etc. — Flowers regular; stamens 
(6 fam.) usually as many as petals and alternate with them; ovary superior; 
leaves opposite. 



ARTIFICIAL KEY. l8l 

(d) Flowers regular or irregular ; milky juiced plants. 
Order xxxv. 

Campanales. — Flowers usually irregular; stamens usually 5, sometimes less, often 
(3 fam.) united by their anthers, free from corolla; ovary inferior, i-to 
6-celled, with many seeds in each cell. 

(e) Flowers aggregated, juice not milky. 
Order XXXVI. 

Rubiales. — Madder, Honeysuckle, etc. — Flowers regular or irregular; stamens 

(2 fam.) on the corolla and isomerous with its lobes; ovary inferior; 2-to 

many-celled, each cell with 1 to many ovules; calyx never pappose. 

( f) Flowers many on a com?non receptacle. 
Order XXXVII. 

Asterales. — Composite, etc. — Flowers regular or irregular; stamens on the 
(4 fam.) corolla, isomerous with its lobes ; ovary inferior ; i-celled, i-ovuled 
(rarely 2-to 3-ceIled) ; calyx often greatly reduced, forming a pap- 
pus or wanting, (p. 187.) 



KEY TO THE FAMILIES, GENERA AND SPECIES. 
MONOCO TYLED ONS. 

Order II. 

Liliales. — A. Flowers regular, 6-androus ; perianth usually corolla-like ; fruit 

3-celled, a japsule or berry. Liliaceae 

a Climbing shrubs or shrubby plants; flowers unisexual; 

leaves broad. Smilax 

(a) Almost herbaceous, not thorny; flowers greenish, very 

offensive. S. herbacea 

b Herbs. 

(a) Flower bracts scarious; flowers umbellate, scapose: 
leaves narrow, from a coated bulb; strong scented 
plants. - Allium 

(1) Leaves keeled, linear; flowers pink, without bulb- 
lets intermixed. A. cernuum 

(2) Leaves flat, linear; bulblets mixed with the flowers. 

A. canadense 

(b) Flowers bracts scarious ; parts of perianth united, cylin- 
drical ; flowers few, axillary, white or greenish ; stem 
leafy, from a rootstock. Polygon atum 

(1) Flowers 2-8; plant large, glaucous. P. giganteum 

(2) Flowers 2, plant small. P. biflorum 

(c) Flowers bracts scarious ; parts of perianth distinct ; flow- 



182 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 



B. 



Order III. 
Aroidales. — A. 



Order VII. 
Iridales. 



-A. 



B. 



ers small, white, racemose ; stem leafy, from a root- 
stock. Smilacina 
(i) Flowers in a r acemose panicle. S. racemosa 

(2) Racemes simple, leaves 3-12. 5. stellata 

(3) Racemes small, leaves 1 or 2, broad, 5. bifolia 
(d) Flower bracts wanting, or gree?iish ; fruit a capsule; 

scape from a solid bulb, with a. pair of leaves at base. 

Erythronium 

(1) Flowers nodding, pink-white. E. albidium 

(<?) Flower bracts wanting, or greenish ; fruit a berry ; stem 

from a rootstock, bearing 3 leaves in a terminal whorl; 

flower 1, large. Trillium 

(1) Ovary 6-angled ; flowers sessile, purple, sepals 

reflexed. T. recurvatum 

'2) Ovary 6-angled, winged; Jlowers on long, usually 

declined peduncles, white or purplish; stigmas 

stout, recurved or spreading. T. erectum 

Flowers regular, or irregular, with three green sepals and 3 

fugacious, colored petals; stamens 6; fruit a pod; sap very 

mucilaginous. Commelinaceae 

a Flowers regular; petals blue, showy; leaves narrow. 

Tradescantia virginica 

Flowers perfect, or monoecious upon the same spadix, occa- 
sionally dioecious ; with 4-6 scale-like sepals or none. Aroideae 
a Flowers naked, born on the base of the spadix, which is sur- 
rounded by a spathe. Ariscema 

(a) Leaves usually 2, 3-parted. A. triphyllum 

(b) Leaves usually 1, 7-11-parted. A. dracontium 
b Flowers with a calyx, covering the globular spadix; stemless, 

with purple spathe ; very early. Symplocarpus fcetidus 

Perianth corolla-like; stamens 6, anthers introrse; often bulb- 
ous rooted and scapose. Amaryllidaceas 
a Leaves grass-like ; stem scapose from a solid bulb ; flowers 
i-several, yellow. Hypoxis erecta 
Perianth corolla-like ; from a spathe ; stamens 3, anthers 
extrorse ; root not bulbous ; leaves often equitant. Iridaceae 
a Stigmas opposite to the anthers : leaves sword-shaped ; styles 
petaloid. Iris 
(a) Flowers blue; plant large. /. versicolor 
b Stigmas alternate with the anthers; stamens monodelphous ; 
grass-like plants. Sisyrinchium 
(a) Flowers blue or whitish, opening in the sunshine, 
spathe solitary. S. augustifolium 



ARTIFICIAL KEY. 



183 



Order VIII. 
Orchidales. — A. 



Order IX. 
Ranales. — A. 



Order XI. 
Parietales. — A. 



Terrestrial, with very irregular Jlozvers ; stamens and style 
connate; anthers 1, 2 or j. Orchidaceae 

a Flowers small in spiral racemes. Spiranthes 

b Flowers large, pink, few on a leafy bracted scape; leaves 2 
large, not fleshy. Orchis spectabilis 

C Flowers large, moccasin-like, 1-3 in number. Cypripedium 

(a) Flowers yellow, lip i" or more long. C. pubescens 

(b) Flowers pink, very large; stem leafy. C. spectabile 
(<?) Flowers smaller, white. C. candidum 

DICOTYLEDONS. 

Flowers usually ^-parted, sometimes apetalous; stamens and 
carpels usually many and distinct ; the fruit an akene, follicle or 
berry. Ranunculaceae 

a Petals none ; leaves radical, 3-lobed, the lobes acute, flowers 
pink to blue, very early. Hepatica acutiloba. 

b Petals present.. 

(a) 5, spurred, reddish. Aquilegia Canadensis 

(b) 5, without spurs, yellow, with a scale at the base of each. 

Ranunculus 

(1) Low; flowers large, 1', early; leaves divided, root 
fascicled. R. fascicularis 

(2) Tall, i°; flowers very small; leaves round, heart- 
shaped or kidney-shaped. R. abortivus 

Sepals and petals in 2 or 3 rows of j ; stamens opposite the 
petals; carpel 1. Berberidaceae 

a Sepals 6; petals 6-9; stamens 12-18; flowers large, white; 

leaves large. Podophyllum peltatum 

Aquatics; sepals j-6, petals many, stamens indefinite; flowers 
large and showy; leaves often peltate, large. Nymphaceae 

a Sepals 4; ovary 12-35 celled; flowers white, greenish outside 

nearly scentless. Castalia tuberosa 

Flowers 4-parted ; sta?nens 6 ; pod 2-celled long or short. 

Cruciferag 

a Pod short, ob cor date, wingless, many-seeded, flowers small, 

white. Capsella bursa-pastoris 

b Pod long, flat, linear; flowers large, white ox purplish ; stems 

leaf', leaves simple, dentate. Car da mine rhomboidea 

c Pod long, linear, beaked or pointed; flowers yellow. 

Brassica sp. 
Flowers ^-parted, irregular, lower petal spurred; anthers 5, 
connate; pod i-celled, 3-valved; several seeded. 

Violaceae, Viola 



1 84 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 



Order XII. 
Urticales. 



Order XVI. 
Geraniales, 



Order XVII. 
Celastrales. 



a Stemless, flowers blue. 

(a) Lateral petals bearded ; leaves cordate or reniform. 

V. cucullata 

(b) Lateral petals, beardless; flowers large, pale; leaves 
pedate. V. pedata 

b Leafy stemmed. 

(a) Flowers yellow, veined. V. pubescens 

— A. Trees with alternate, simple pinnate veined leaves. Fruit a 
w higed samara. Flowers crowded, small, in spring. 

Ulmaceae, Limns 

a Inner bark very mucilaginous. U. fulva 

B. Trees, with large thin leaves; Fruit & globular nut. Flowers 

with sepals and petals, 5-parted, stamens many: mucilaginous. 

Tiliaceae 
a Leaves green, glabrous ; flowers cream-colored, very frag- 
rant, with peduncle united to a bract. Tilia americana 
C Herbs, flowers usually 5-parted, complete; stamens many in a 
coluinn. Malvaceae 
a Stamen column anther bearing at the top; stigmas on inner 
face of styles ; involucel of 3 bractlets. Malva 
(a) Creeping, flowers small, pink. M. rotundifolia 

— A. Flowers regular or irregular usually 5-parted; ovary 3-5-lobed ; 
mostly herbs with alternate leaves ; often strong scented 

Geraniaceae 

a Flowers 5-parted; 5 glands alternating with the petals, style 

5 cleft; stamens 10. Geraniu?n 

(a) Rootstock perennial ; leaves large 5-7 parted, flowers 

large, showy, pink. G. maculatum 

b Flowers 5-parted ; no glands ; leaves 3-foliate ; juice sour. 

Ox a I is 

(a) Flowers pink. O. violacea 

(b) Flowers yellow. O. stricta 

— A. Climbing shrubs, with tendrils opposite the alternate leaves; 
flowers small, crowded. Ampelidae 

a Leaves simple, palmate-veined. Vitis 

b Leaves digitately 5-foliate ; tendrils dilated at the tips. 

Ampelopsis quinquefolia 

B. Twining shrub with simple, alternate leaves, and small 

5-parted greenish flowers in racemes; fruit orange, red within. 

Celastrus scandens 



ARTIFICIAL KEY. 



185 



Order XVIII. 
Sapindales.- 



-A. 



B. 



C. 



Order XXII 
Asarales 



—A. 



Order xxiv. 
Rosales. - 



Trees with alternate p innately compound leaves; sterile flowers 
in aments : fruit a nut. Juglandaceae 

a Sterile flowers in simple catkins. Juglans 

(a) Petioless, branches and fruit clammy. J. cinerea 

(b) Petioless, branches and fruit note lain my. J. nigra 
b Sterile flowers in clustered catkins. Hicoria 

a. leaflets 5. bark in plates, rough. H. ovata 

Shrubs or trees with alternate simple leaves ; fruit usually a nut. 

Cupuliferas 

a Sterile flowers in slender catkins, with a calyx, fruit a 

rounded nut, borne in a cup-like scaly involucre. Quercus 

(a) Cup with mossy fringe, acorn large. Q. macrocarpa 

Trees or shrubs, with opposite, simple, palmate veined leaves 

(in our examples) ; flowers crowded or cymose or corymbose. 

Sapindaceae 
a Trees with winged fruit, simple leaves. Acer 

(a) Leaves silvery beneath ; flowers red in clusters in early 
spring. A. dasycarpum 

(b) Leaves green beneath ; flowers pale yellow, corymbed, 
later. A. saccharinum 

Flowers apetalous, 3-parted ; stamens 6-12; ovary 6-celled, 

many-seeded. Aristolochiaceae 

a Stemless, with 1 or 2 leaves; stamens 12, Asarum 

(a) Leaves reniform, velvety; flowers dull purple, the lobes 

abruptly spreading, pointed. A. canadense 

Flowers regular, 5-parted; stamens usually numerous on the 
calyx, pistils i-many, distinct or united with the calyx-tube; 
leaves usually alternate. Rosacea? 

a Ovary superior. 

(a) Calyx deciduous ; pistil 1 ; fruit a drupe. Primus 

(1) Flowers white, racemose ; small tree, thornless, with 
large oval leaves and astringent fruit. P. virgin iana 

(2) Flowers white, umbellate ; small tree, thorny, with 
oval leaves, after thefoivcrs. P. Americana 

(b) Calyx persistent, with bractlets ; pistils many, heaped in 
a head ; flowers white ; fruit pulpy. Fragaria 
(1) Leaves firm, silky-hairy beneath. F. viiginiana 

b Ovaries superior , but enclosed in fie shy ealyx tube ; flowers 
large and showy ; often thorny. Rosa 

(a) Styles distinct; sepals spreading after jhnoeriug, and 
deciduous; leaflets 5-7, coarsely toothed; stipules nar- 
row; spines slender, straight, low, 1-3 A'. Humilis 



1 86 



CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 



B. 



C. 



Order xxvin. 
Ericales. — A. 



Order xxix. 
Primulales. — A. 



Order xxxi. 
Polemoniales.- 



C Ovary inferior. 

(a) Thorny tree with ovate, irregularly toothed leaves, and 
large pink flowers in small corymbose clusters. Pistils 
2-5. Pirus coronaria 

Flowers usually irregular, 5-parted; stamens usually 10; car- 
pel 1 becoming a legume. Leguminosae 
a Stamens 10, distinct; pod inflated; leaves usually 3-foliate ; 
herbs. Baptisia 

(a) Flowers small, yellow; plant smooth. B. tinctoria 

(b) Flowers large, cream-colored; plant low, soft, hairy. 

B. leucophoea 

(c) Flowers large, white; plant tall, stout, glaucous. 

B. leucantha 
Stamens no,Monodelphous ; leaves digitate, many-foliate; flow- 
ers pale purple, in a raceme, showy. Lupinus perennis 
C Stamens 10, diadelphous. 

(a) Herd, creeping ; leaves 3-foliate; flowers small, white, in 
a head. Trifolium repens 

(b) Tree, thorny ; leaves odd-pinnate; flowers in raceme 
white, sweet scented, showy. Robinia pseud-acacia 

Shrubs or shrubby ; flowers regular, 4-5-parted; stamens usually 
twice the number of petals and free from them; ovary supe- 
rior. Ericaceae 

Herbs, flowers 5-parted, stamens as many as the petals and 
opposite to them. Style 1. Primulaceae 

a Ovary superior ; anthers conniving in a cone ; perianth re- 
flexed, petals pink or white, showy, flowers in umbels on a 
naked scape. Dodecatheon meadia 

-A. Flowers regular 5-parted, petals convolute in bud; ovary 
3-celled with i-many seeds in each cell, axial; style 3-cleft. 

Polemoniaceae 



a Corolla salver-shaped ; leaves opposite. 
(a) Flowers corymb ed. 

(1) Petals pink, entire ; leaves m 
sharp point; hairy. 

(2) Petals pinkish, bifid ; 

(3) Petals lilac or blue ; 



Phlox 



tapering to a 
P. pilosa 
P. bifida 
stems loosely 
P. divaricata 



pubescent, low. 
leaves broad; 
spreading, pubescent. 
(b) Flowers pa?iicled pink, stem tall without spots. 

P. paniculata 
Flowers regular 5-parted ; ovary deeply 4-lobed about the common 



GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. 1 87 

style; usually rough herbs, with alternate leaves; inflorescence 
usually i-sided-cymose or racemose. Borraginaceae 

a Corolla trumpet-form with open throat, blue ; filaments slen- 
der, exserted; smooth, with large leaves and cymose, showy 
flowers. Mertensia virginica 

b Corolla salver-form, with the throat slightly closed, yellow, 
woolly bearded at the base within ; plant hispid. 

Lithospermum hirtum 

C. Flowers regular, 5-parted; corolla imbricate or valvate in bud; 

ovary entire 2-celled ; style 1 ; fruit usually a many-seeded 

berry. Solanaceae 

Order xxxvu. 

Asterales. — A. Flowers usually many]on a common receptacle, surrounded by an 
involucre ; stamnes on the corolla; ovary 1 -celled ; style 2-cleft ; 
calyx often wanting, ox greatly reduced, forming z. pappus* 

Composite 
a Flowers all perfect, ligulate; pappus white, capillary ; herbs 
with milky juice. 

(a) Flowers large, yellow ; stemless, with long lobed and 

toothed leaves. Taraxicum officinale 

b Heads, with many disc and ray fiowers, on naked peduncles ; 

rays pistillate ; pappus capillary, scanty; receptacle naked; 

flowers pink or white, Erigeron 

(a) Perennial, hairy; leaves mostly near the base of stem. 

(1) Flowers large, few, (1-9); rays about 50, light 

bluish-purple. E. bellidifolium 

SPECIAL GLOSSARY. 
acaulescent : apparently stemless; the stem being very short or subterranean. 
achenitcm : a one-seeded, seed-like fruit. 

acute : merely sharp-pointed, or in a point less than a right angle. 
adelphous (stamens) : joined filaments. 

adnate : the anther fixed by its whole length to the filament or its prolongation. 
akene or akenium : see achenium. 
albumen the nutritious matter stored up in the seed. 

alternate (leaves) : arranged one after another at different heights on the axis 
ament : see catkin. 

amorphous: shapeless; without any definite form. 
andrcecium : a. name for the stamens taken together. 
androus : referring to stamens. 

annual (plant) : fruiting the year it is raised from the seed and then dying 
anterior : in the blossom, is the part next the bract, i.e., external. 
anther : the region of the stamen which bears the pollen. 

anther idium ' : a reproductive organ corresponding to the anther of flowering plants 
antrorse : directing upwards or forwards. 



1 88 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

apetalous : destitute .of petals. 

apocarpous : (pistils) : when the several pistils of the same flower are separate, 

arboreous, arborescent : tree-like, in size or form. 

awn : the bristle or beard of barley, oats, etc. ; or any similar appendage; 

axis : the organ round which others are attached; the root and stem. 

axil : the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem. 

axillary (buds, etc.) : occurring in an axil. 

berry : a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout. 

bidentate : having two teeth (not twice or doubly dentate). 

bifid : two-cleft to about the middle. 

bilabiate: two-lipped, as the corolla of sage. 

bilocular : two-celled, as most anthers, the pod of fox glove, most saxifrages, etc, 

bisexual : with both stamens and pistils, 

bract : a small leaf associated with a flower. 

bractlet : a bract seated on the pedicel or flower-stalk. 

bulb : a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually subterranean. 

bulbous : bulb-like in shape, etc. 

calyx : the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower. 

calyx-tube : the tube formed rjy the union of the sepals. 

capillary : hair-like in shape ; as fine as hair or slender bristles. 

capsule : a pod; any dry, dehiscent seed-vessel. 

capitate : having a gobular apex, like the head of a pin. 

carpel : simple pistil; one of the parts of which a compound pistil is composed. 

carpella?y : belonging to a carpel. 

cartilaginous : firm and tough, like cartilage in texture. 

catkin: a scaly deciduous spike of flowers, an ament. 

catdescent : having an obvious stem. 

cell : the cavity of an anther, ovary, etc. 

chlorophyll : the green coloring matter in plants. 

circinate : rolled inwards from the top, like a crosier, as the fronds of ferns. 

clustered : leaves, flowers, etc., aggregated or collected into a bunch. 

commissure : the line of junction of two carpels, as in the fruit of umbelliferse. 

compound : composed of two or more distinct parfs. 

cone : the fruit of the pine family. 

conjugate : coupled ; in single pairs. 

connate : united or grown together from the first. 

convolute : rolled up lengthwise, as the leaves of the plum in vernation. 

cordate : heart-shaped. 

cor 7n : a solid bulb, like that of crocus. 

corolla : the leaves of the flower within the calyx. 

corona: a coronet or crown, an appendage at the top of the daw of some petals. 

corymb : a sort of flat or convex flower-cluster. 

cotyledons : the first leaves of the embryo. 

crenate : the edge scalloped into rounded teeth. 



GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. 1 89 

cryptogamous : relating to cryptogams, or flowerless plants. 
culm : a straw; the stem of grasses and sedges. 

cylindrical form : as that of stems, etc., which are round, and tapering. 
cylindraceous : approaching to the cylindrical form. 
cyme : a cluster of centrifugal inflorescence. 
cymose : furnished with cymes or like a cyme. 

deciduous : falling off, as a calyx and corolla which fall before the fruit forms. 
decompound : several times compounded or divided. 
definite : when of a uniform number, and not above twelve or so. 
dehiscence : the mode in which an anther or pod regularly bursts or splits open. 
dehiscent : opening by regular dehiscence. 
dentate : toothed. 

diadelphous (stamens) : united by their filaments in two sets. 
diandrous : having two stamens. 
dicotyledonous : having a pair of cotyledons. 

digitate (fingered): leaflets of a compound leaf borne on apex of the petiole. 
dimerous: made up of two parts, or its organs in twos. 

dioecious: where the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers on different plants. 
disk : the face of any flat body ; the central part of a head of flowers. 
divided (leaves, etc.) : cut into divisions extending about to the base or the mid rib. 
drupe : a stone-fruit. 

elaters : threads mixed with the spores of liverworts. 
embryo : the rudimentary, undeveloped plantlet in the seed. 
endosperm: (see albumen). 

entire : the margins not at all toothed, notched or divided, but even. 
epigynous : upon the ovary. 

epiphyte : a plant growing on another plant, but not nourished by it. 
equitant : leaves folded longitudinally, and overlapping without any involution. 
evergreen : holding the leaves over winter and until new ones appear. 
exserted : protruding out of, as the stamens out of the corolla. 
extrorse : the anther turned outwards and opening on the outer side. 
fascicle : a compact cluster. 

fascicled: growing in a bundle or tuft, as the leaves of a pine and larch. 
fertile : capable of producing fruit or good pollen. 

filament : the stalk of a stamen ; also any slender, thread-shaped appendage. 
fiabelliforjn : fan-shaped; broad, rounded at the summit and narrowed at the base. 
fleshy : composed of firm pulp or flesh. 
floating : swimming on the surface of the water. 
floral envelopes : the leaves of a flower. 
foliate : relating to or bearing leaflets. 
follicle : a simple pod, opening down the inner suture. 
fruit : the matured ovary and its contents. 
fugacious : soon falling off or perishing. 
funucl-form : expanding gradually upwards like a funnel. 



I9O CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

gamopetalous : of united petals; same as monopetalous, and a better word. 

gemmation : state of budding, or the arrangement of parts in the bud. 

germ; a growing point; a young bud; sometimes the same as embryo. 

germination : the development of a plantlet from the seed. 

glabrous : smooth, i. e., having no hairs, bristles, or other pubescence. 

glands : small-cellular organs which secrete oily or aromatic or other products. 

glaucous : covered with a bloom , viz , with a fine white powder that rubs off. 

glumes : the husks of floral coverings of grasses, as bracts of each spikelet. 

glumaceous : glume-like or glume-bearing. 

gynczciian : a name for the pistils of a flower taken altogether. 

habitat : the situation in which a plant grows in a wild state. 

herbaceous : of the texture of common herbage. 

hermaphrodite (flower) : having both stamens and pistils in the same blossom. 

hispid : bristly; beset with stiff hairs, 

hexamerous : its parts in sixes. 

hypogynous : inserted under the pistil. 

imbricate : overlapping like shingles. 

incomplete flower : wanting calyx or corolla. 

indehiscent : not splitting open. 

inferior : growing below some other organ. 

inflated : turgid and bladdery. 

inflorescence : the arrangement of flowers on the stem. 

in tern ode : the part of a stem between two nodes. 

introrse : turned or facing inwards, i. e., towards the axis of the flower. 

involucre : a whole or set of bracts around a flower, umbel or head. 

involucel: a partial or small involucre. 

irregular : parts of same whorl, unlike. 

isomerous : organs of a flower composed of an equal number of parts. 

keel : a projecting ridge on a surface like the keel of a boat. 

keeled : furnished with a keel or sharp, longitudinal ridge. 

kidney- form : resembling the outline of a kidney. 

labiate: same as bilabiate or two-lipped. 

lamina : a plate or blade. 

lanceolate: lance-shaped. 

leaflet : one of the divisions or blades of a compound leaf. 

legume : a simple pod, dehiscent into two pieces like that of the pea. 

ligule : the strap-shaped corolla in many composite. 

ligulate : tongue-shaped. 

linear : narrow and flat, the margins parallel. 

membranaceous : of the texture of membrane ; thin and more or less translucent. 

micropyle : the closed orifice of the seed. 

vionodelphous : stamens united by their filaments into one set. 

monocotyledonous (embryo) : with only one cotyledon. 

monoecious (flower) : having stamens or pistils only. 



GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. igl 

monopetalous (flower) : with the corolla of one piece. 

monosepalous : a. calyx of one piece, i. e., with the sepals united into one body. 

morphology : the form and structure which an organ (say a leaf) may assume. 

netted-veined : furnished with branching veins forming net work. 

node: a knot; the joints of a stem or the part whence leaves spring. 

obcordate : heart-shaped with the broad and notched end at the apex. 

opposite : on opposite sides of the stem from each other (i. e., in pairs). 

oval: broadly elliptical. 

ovary : that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds. 

ovate : shaped like or having the outline of an egg. 

palmate : parts spread like the hand with the outspread fingers. 

panicle : an open cluster ; like a raceme but more or less compound. 

pappus : thistle-down. 

pappose : forming pappus. 

parallel-veined (leaves) : the veins running parallel to the mid-rib. 

parietal (placentae, etc.) : attached to the walls of the ovary. 

pedate : palmate or palmately cleft, with the side divisions again cleft. 

pedicel : the stalk of each particular flower of a cluster. 

peduncle : a flower-stalk, whether of a single flower or of a flower-cluster. 

peltate : shield shaped. 

pentamerous : with its parts in fives or on the plan of five. 

perennial : lasting from year to year. 

perfect (flower) : having both stamens and pistils. 

perianth: floral envelopes, not readily distinguishable as calyx and corolla. 

pericarp : the ripened ovary. 

perigynium : a body of bracts borne around the pistil. 

perigynous : the petals and stamens borne on the calyx. 

persistent: remaining beyond the period when such parts commonly fall. 

petiole : the stem or stalk at the base of a leaf. 

petal : a leaf of the corolla. 

petaloid: petal like; resembling or colored like petals. 

pinnate (leaf) : with leaflets arranged along the sides of a common petiole. 

pistil : the seed-bearing organ of the flower. 

placenta : the surface or part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached. 

pollen : the fertilizing powder of the anther. 

polygamous : having both perfect and unisexual flowers. 

polypetalous : petals distinct or separate (whether few or many). 

pome : a fleshy many-celled fruit such as the apple. 

prickles : sharp elevations of the bark, coming off with it, as of the rose. 

pubesce?it : hairy, or downy, especially with fine and soft hairs or pubescence. 

pungent : very hard, and sharp-pointed; prickly-pointed. 

raceme : a flower-cluster having stalked flowers on a common axis. 

racemose : bearing racemes, or raceme-like. 

radical : belonging to the root or apparently coming from the root ; first root. 



192 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

ray : the marginal flowers of a head or cluster when different from the rest. 

receptacle : the axis or support of a flower or head of flowers. 

recurved : curved outwards or backwards. 

rejlexed : bent outwards or backwards. 

regular : having all the parts of the whorl, similar. 

rhizome : a root-stock. 

root-stock : root-like trunks or portions of stems on or underground. 

runner : a slender, prostrate branch, rooting at the end or joints as the strawberry. 

salver-shaped : border spreading at right angles to tube, as the corolla of phlox. 

samara ; a. winged fruit or key, as of maple, ash, or elm. 

scale (buds and bulbs) : modified leaf-like structures. 

scape : a peduncle, rising from the ground, or near it, as of the stemless violets. 

scarious : thin, dry, and membranous. 

segment : a subdivision or lobe of any cleft body. 

sepal : a leaf or division of the calyx. 

serrate : margin cut into teeth, pointing upwards. 

sessile : sitting; without any stalk, as a leaf destitute of a petiole. 

simple : of one piece; opposed to compound. 

sinus : the re-entering angle or space between two lobes or projections. 

solitary : single ; not associated with others. 

spadix : a fleshy spike of flowers. 

spadaceous : resembling or furnished with a spadix. 

spathe : a bract which inwraps an infloresence. 

spathaceous : resembling or furnished with a spathe. 

spike : an inflorescence like a raceme, only the flowers are sessile. 

spikelet : a small or secondary spike ; the inflorescence of grasses. 

spore : a body resulting from the fructification of cryptogamous plants, 

spur : a projection of the flower, resembling a spur. 

staminate : furnished with stamens. 

sterile : barren or imperfect. 

stigma : the porous end or surface of the pistil which receives the pollen. 

stipules : the appendages, one on each side of the base of certain leaves. 

style : the part of the pistil which bears the stigma. 

syncarpous (fruit or pistil) : composed of several carpels consolidated into one. 

tap-root : a root with a stout, tapering body. 

tendril : a thread-like structure used for climbing. 

terete : long and round, same as cylindrical, only it may taper. 

terrestrial : living on the land. 

tetra?nerous : with its parts or sets in fours. 

thallus : a plant-body having no true stem, leaves and roots. 

thyrse or thyrsus : a compact and pyramidal panicle. 

torus : the receptacle of the flower. 

trimerous : with its parts in threes. 

triple-ribbed : midrib with branches near the base of the leaf, as in sunflower. 



GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. 1 93 

tuber : a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, as a potato. 

tubular : hollow and of elongated form. 

twining : ascending by coiling around a support, like the hop. 

umbel : the umbrella-like form of inflorescence. 

umbellate : in umbels. 

unisexual : having stamens or pistils only. 

valve : one of the pieces into which a dehiscent pod, or any similar body, splits. 

valvate : opening by valves. 

vascular : containing vessels, or consisting of vessels, such as ducts. 

vein : the small rib or branch of the frame-work of leaves. 

vesicle : a little bladder. 

vine : any trailing or climbing stem . 

viscous : having a glutinous surface. 

whorl (leaves, etc.) : arranged in a circle round the stem. 

wing : any membranous expansion. 



LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE. 



LABORATORY EQUIPMENT, f 

A biological laboratory should be provided with a sink, water, 
and, if possible, gas. The tables, if properly constructed, will 
each accommodate four pupils at a time, and this number four or 
five times a day, providing each pupil with a separate locker. 
There should be at least half as many compound microscopes as 
the number of pupils working in the laboratory at one time, two 
pupils using a microscope in common. It is more satisfactory, 
however, that each pupil in the class should have the exclusive 
use of a microscope.* The laboratory should be provided with 
a microtome, paraffin bath, and a set of chemical reagents. 

THE PUPILS' EQUIPMENT. 

Each pupil should provide himself with the following named 
articles : — 

(i) A scratch-book and soft pencil. 

(2) A hand towel and sponge. 

(3) A set of laboratory tablets, consisting of a drawing tablet, 

a writing tablet, a pair of covers and fasteners, a hard 
pencil (HHH or HHHH). 

(4) A copy of the Laboratory Manual. 

* The Chicago High Schools import an outfit which, duty free, costs $15. It consists 
of Leitz's stand, No. V; ocular, No. 2; objectives, No. 3 and No. 6, giving magnifying 
powers, respectively, of about 68 and 285 diameters. 

t D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago, have issued a pamphlet entitled The Biological 
Laboratory in Secondary Schools, which offers suggestions concerning the arrange- 
ment and equipment of a laboratory. On application, this pamphlet is sent free to 
teachers and principals of schools. 

194 



ALCOHOL. 



195 



(5) A simple set of tools,* consisting of a pair of sharp- 
pointed scissors, a pair of forceps, a scalpel, a blow- 
pipe, a pair of needles with handles, and a hand mag- 
nifier. 

ALCOHOL, ft 

Alcohol f is the most important reagent in the biological labo- 
ratory : the commercial alcohol varies from 90% to 95% in 
strength; absolute alcohol, 100%, is needed only in small 
quantities, and is usually put up in pound bottles. Some authors 
refer to "Cologne spirits," which is 90%. Alcohol is much used 
in lower grades, which can be prepared from the higher grades, 
by adding distilled water, either by the alcoholmeter, or in certain 
proportion by volume. 

To prepare 190 cubic centimetres of the various grades from 
95 %, or the standard commercial alcohol, the following table of 
proportions is sufficiently accurate for ordinary use : — 



make. 


Take 0/95%. 


Add H 2 0. 


90%, 


180 c.c. 


10 c.c. 


70%, 


140 c.c. 


50 c.c. 


So%. 


100 c.c. 


90 c.c. 


35%. 


70 c.c. 


120 c.c. 



The above grades should be kept on hand ready for use. 
Alcohol has a wide range of uses. In addition to its general use 
in preparing other reagents, it is also used in killing, fixing, hard- 
ening, and preserving tissue. Nothing lower than 70 % is a safe 
preserving agent. Material intended for histological purposes 
should be stored in 90 %. Material which has once been passed 
to 90 % may remain in lower grades for staining, without injury. 
As a good macerating agent 30 % may be used. Alcohol used 

* Richards & Co., Limited, and E. H. Sargent & Co., Chicago, are manufacturers of 
these sets. Retail price, $1.00. 

f Schools, by first complying with certain legal formalities of the United States Revenue 
laws, are permitted to withdraw alcohol from bonded warehouses free of the revenue tax. By 
this means it may be had at about 75 cents per gallon, instead of the usual price of about 
$2.50 including internal revenue. 

ft See Formalin i on page 202. 



I96 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE. 

in hardening or dehydrating tissue, and that used in preserving 
and storing material, will gradually become of a grade too low to 
be of practical use. Such alcohol and other waste alcohol should 
not be thrown away, but may be redistilled. 

Alcoholic Material. — Material which has been for some time 
in alcohol should be placed in water for a little while before it is 
studied, especially if dissections are to be made. When alcoholic 
material acquires a disagreeable odor, a few drops of the oil of 
Cassia may be added to the alcohol containing such material. 

LIST OF REAGENTS. 

Only a few of the more important reagents and formulas are 
given in this list. The attention of the instructor is called to the 
references at the close of this list, to the special works on micro- 
scopic technique. 

In preparing mixtures requiring definite per cent., into which 
ingredients enter both by weight and volume, 1 gramme is equal 
to 1 cubic centimetre. 
Albumen Fixative {Mayer's). 

Formula. — Take 50 c.c. glycerine with 50 c.c. white of egg 
and add 1 gramme salicylate of soda. Shake together 
and filter. 
Use. — Same as collodion fixation {a. v.). 
Alcoholic Borax- Carmine ( Grenadier's) . 

Formula. — Take a 4 % aqueous solution of borax and add 
2 to 3 % Carmine "No. 40" (2 to 3 parts carmine to 
4 parts borax): add an equal volume of 70% alcohol and 
allow to stand 24 hours and filter. 
Use. — For tissue which has been hardened. Tissue should 
pass from 35 % alcohol into this stain. A good general 
stain. Decolor with 35 % acidulated alcohol. 
Alum Cochineal {Czokor's). 

Formula. — Rub together in a mortar 7 grammes of cochineal 
and 7 grammes calcined alum. Add 700 c.c. distilled water 



LIST OF REAGENTS. 197 

and boil down to about 400 ex. When cool add about 
5 drops of carbolic acid. Filter several times. 

Use. — A good nuclear stain on animal tissue. Apply several 
hours. Wash out stain with distilled water and pass 
through grades of alcohol. 
Aniline Dyes {green, blue, violet, red, etc.). 

Formula. — Strong alcoholic or aqueous solutions are prepared. 

Use. — Valuable chiefly in staining plant tissue. Apply a few 
minutes to 24 hours. Wash out stain with water. 
Acetic Acid. 

Formula. — Dissolve 10 c.c. glacial acetic acid in 100 c.c. 
distilled water : add enough distilled water to make the 
solution 1 litre. 

Use. — For clearing tissue and rendering nuclei in fresh plant 
tissue more distinct. 
Acidulated Alcohol. 

Formula. — To 100 c.c. of 35 % alcohol add from 4 to 6 
drops of hydrochloric acid. Same with 70 % alcohol. 

Use. — For removing excess of stains. 
Canada Balsam. 

Formula. — Take the best grade of Canada balsam or balsam 
fir, bake slowly until thoroughly dry ; powder and dissolve 
in chloroform, benzol, or turpentine. 

Use. — Mounting medium. Tissue must be perfectly dehy- 
drated with absolute alcohol and cleared with clove oil 
or other clearing agent before mounting. Keep in wide- 
mouthed bottles, well stoppered. Apply by drops with 
glass rod. 
Carmine Injection Fluid. 

Formula. — Rub up carmine in distilled water and add ammo- 
nia drop by drop, till the carmine is dissolved. Filter, and 
then evaporate over a gentle heat, while constantly stirring 
to get rid of the ammonia. The residue is to be dissolved 
in camphor water. 



I98 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE. 

Use. — For injecting small animals or portions of animals. 
Shake thoroughly before use. 
Chloroform. 

Use. — For killing all kinds of animals. Use in tight box or 
jar. Used as liquid or vapor. 
Chromo-Nitric Acid (Perenyi's Fluid) . 

Formula. — Take 4 volumes 10 % nitric acid : add 3 volumes 
90 °jo alcohol ; add 3 volumes 0.5 % chromic acid. Allow 
to stand several hours before using. The mixture should 
assume a violet hue. 

Use. — For general use one of the best fixing and hardening 
reagents. Apply from 2 to 5 hours. For ova from 20 
minutes to 2 hours. 
Chromic Acid ( Crystals of Cr. 3 ). 

Formula. — Prepare a 5 % aqueous stock solution. Only the 
weaker solutions are in general use, which may be readily 
prepared from the stock solution. 

Use. — For fixing plant tissue use a 1 % to 3 % solution. For 
animal tissue 0.5 % to 1 % solution. Material should be 
thoroughly washed in water before passing through grades 
of alcohol. 

For decalcifying bone, a 5 % to 10 % solution, with or with- 
out nitric acid, is used. 
Collodion Fixative (Schallibaum's). 

Formula. — Take 1 part of thin collodion and 4 parts of clove 
oil, and shake together. Should be made up in small 
quantities (1 ounce). 

Use. — For fixing paraffin sections to the slide. A thin film 
is applied with a camel's-hair brush, which may be kept in 
the cork of the phial containing the fixative. 
Corrosive Sublimate (solution) . 

Formula. — Prepare a saturated solution of mercuric chloride 
in distilled water. A litre of water dissolves about 60 to 
70 grammes. No metal should be allowed to touch the 
solution. Remember this is a deadly poison. 



LIST OF REAGENTS. I99 

Use. — For killing small organisms. Used either hot or cold. 
Wash material thoroughly before passing through grades. 
Used cold as a hardening reagent. 
Food Solution for Green Plants {Sack's). 

Formula. — Distilled water, 1 gramme ; potassium nitrate, 
0.5 gramme ; sodium chloride, 0.5 gramme ; calcium sul- 
phate, 0.5 gramme ; magnesium sulphate, 0.5 gramme • 
calcium phosphate, 0.5 gramme. To this solution is to be 
added a trace of a weak solution of ferric chloride. 
Gelatine Injection. 

Formula. — French gelatine is soaked in water ; when soft the 
superfluous water is poured off. Melt slowly and stir into 
it Carmine Injection Fluid or other thin insoluble coloring 
matter. Add a few drops of carbolic acid. Stir while 
cooling. 

Use. — For injecting specimens which are intended for section- 
ing. Should be used warm. In case of large specimen 
it is necessary to perform the injection in a vessel of hot 
water. 
Glycerine {dilute, alcoholic, pure glycerine jelly). 

Formula. — Dilute equal parts glycerine and distilled water. 
Alcoholic, equal parts glycerine and 90 °J alcohol. Glyc- 
erine jelly (buy prepared). 

Use. — Dilute on vegetable tissue (1) clears; (2) withdraws 
water from fresh cells and shrinks protoplasm from cell- 
walls ; (3) preserves material. 

Alcoholic on vegetable tissue, softens hard alcoholic material. 

Pure Glycerine is used in dehydrating, preserving, and mount- 
ing tissue. Glycerine jelly is a mounting medium. 
Hematoxylin Stain {Kleinenberg } s) . 

Formula. — Prepare a saturated solution of calcium chloride 
in 70 % alcohol, adding a little alum. Filter this solution 
and then add from 6 to 8 volumes of 70 % alcohol. This 
may be regarded as a " mordant." Make a concentrated 



200 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE. 

solution of hematoxylin in absolute alcohol. The stain 
is prepared by adding to the mordant a few drops of the 
concentrated hematoxylin solution. The stain should be 
at least two days old before using and show a bluish violet 
color. 
Use. — A good general stain. Remove excess of stain from 
tissue with 70 °jo acidulated alcohol. 
Iodine Solution. 

Formula.- — Dissolve 1 gramme potassic iodide in 10 c.c. of dis- 
tilled water and add 0.25 gramme iodine. Dilute to 250 c.c. 
Use. — Principally used on plant tissue. It turns starch blue 
or purple ; cellulose, yellow, when acting alone \ cellulose, 
blue, when acting with sulphuric acid (o.v.)] turns proto- 
plasm and nucleus brown. 
Macerating Fluid (Schultze's). 

Formula. — Dissolve a gramme of potassium chlorate in 50 c.c. 

of nitric acid. 
Use. — For plant tissue. The tissue should be boiled in the 
mixture and then thoroughly washed in water. It may 
also be used on temporary preparations on the slide. 
Magenta {stain). 

Formula. — In a litre of water dissolve .6 gramme of crystal- 
lized magenta (roseine). To the solution add 6 c.c. abso- 
lute alcohol. 
Use. — For staining fresh material. Used only in temporary 
preparations. 
Normal Salt Solution (" physiological salt solution"). 

Formula. — To a given quantity of distilled water add 0.75 °/ 

of sodium chloride. 
Use. — For retaining temporarily living or fresh animal tissue 
in its normal condition. 
Osmic Acid. 

Formula. — Prepare a 2% aqueous solution. Dissolve 1 
gramme osmic acid crystals in 50 c.c. of distilled water. 



LIST OF REAGENTS. 201 

Great care is needed in preparing and storing this reagent 
to avoid contact with organic matter and light. 

Use. — For staining fat in tissue. For killing microscopic 
animals. For fixing tissue. The above solution should be 
reduced to one-third its strength before use. 
Picric Acid {saturated solution). 

Formula, — Prepare a saturated aqueous solution. 

Use, — (i) For fixing plant tissue. Wash material thoroughly 
in water, and then pass through grades of alcohol. 
(2) Used in fixing animal tissue. (3) Used in preparing 
Kleinenberg's Picro-sulphimc mixture. 
Picro-sulphuric Acid {Kleinenberg's mixture) , 

Formula. — Take 100 c.c. saturated aqueous solution Picric 
acid and add 2 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid. Allow to 
stand several hours, then filter and add 300 c.c. distilled 
water. 

Use. — An excellent killing and fixing reagent. May be used 
hot or cold. Tissue should remain from 2 to 5 hours and 
pass to 70 °J alcohol, which should be changed several 
times before material is passed to 90%. Used also as 
decalcifying reagent. 
Plaster of Paris Injection. 

Formula. — Fine Plaster of Paris is rubbed up with water in 
a mortar to the consistency of thin cream. Color to the 
required tint with Carmine Injection Fluid or French Blue. 
Strain through fine muslin. The Plaster of Paris may be 
mixed with a pigment and kept in stock. In making up 
the mass, about 1 part of Plaster of Paris to 3 parts of 
water should be used. 

Use. — For injecting vessels, etc., of larger animals. Must be 
used immediately after preparation. 
Potassic Hydrate. 

Formula. — Prepare a 5 % aqueous solution. 

Use. — For clearing and bleaching plant tissue. Swells up 
shrivelled material and renders it plump. 



202 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE. 

Sulphuric Acid. 

Formula. — Prepare a 50 % aqueous solution, adding the sul- 
phuric acid slowly. * 
Use. — In fresh plant tissue this reagent turns protoplasm 
brown ; dissolves cellulose, but leaves protoplasm ; turns 
cellulose blue when acting with iodine. 
Turpentine (pure). 

Use. — For dissolving paraffin from sections after they have 
been fixed to the slide. Also, clearing reagent to remove 
alcohol from tissue before mounting in Canada balsam. 
Formalin. 

A new hardening and preserving reagent is now taking the 
place of alcohol to a large extent. It is variously known 
as 40^0 solution Formaldehyde, Formol, Formalin, and 
Formolose, and is a good preservative for both animal and 
plant tissue. For ordinary purposes it may be used as a 
1% to 2j£% aqueous solution. 



The following works are largely or entirely devoted to micro- 
scopic and laboratory technique : — 

References. — 14— 16 — 28 — 30 — 54— 58 — 67 — 94— 161 -- 167. 

The following works devote only a limited amount of space 
to technique : — 

References. — 5 — 6— 17 — 21 — 24 — 26 — 43 — 45 — 65 — 106— 125— 127 — 
137*— 147. 



WORKS OF REFERENCE. 



The following list of works, intended for reference and collateral reading, 
will be found helpful to both pupil and instructor. The list, as will be seen, 
is arranged in alphabetical order by authors. The references which occur at 
the close of each laboratory study are made by the serial number which ap- 
pears in the column along the left margin. 

The numbers enclosed in parentheses, appearing to the right of the titles, 
refer to the List of Publishers on page 208. 

1. Agassiz. Seaside Studies in Natural History. 1865. (18.) 

2. Allen. On the Color of Flowers. 1882. (24.) 

3. Common Sense Science. 1887. (23.) 

4. Apgar. Trees of the Northern United States. 1892. (1.) 

:. Arthur, Barnes, and Coulter. Handbook of Plant Dissection. 1886. 

(170 

*6. Atkinson. Biology of Ferns. 1894. (24.) 

7. Aveling. An Introduction to the Study of Botany. 1891. (24.) 

8. Badenock. Romance of the Insect World. 1894. (24.) 

9. Balfour. Elements of Botany. 1876. (24.) 

10. Manual of Botany. 1875. ( 2 4-) 

11. Treatise on Comparative Embryology. 1891. (24.) 
. 12. Bastin. Elements of Botany. 1890. (11.) 

13. Bates. The Naturalist on the River Amazon. 1892. (3.) 

14. Beale. How to use the Microscope. 1880. (4.) 

15. Beddard. Animal Coloration. 1892. (24.) 

16. BEHRENS. Guide to the Microscope in Botany. 1885. (6.) 

17. BENNET and Murray. A Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany. 1889. 

(22-) 

18. Bessey. Botany for High Schools and Colleges. 7th ed., 1889. (17.) 

19. Elements of Botany. 4th ed., 1889. (17.) 
v*2o. Bidgood. Elementary Biology. 1893. ( 22 

21. Bower. A Course iii Practical Botany. 3d ed., 1891. (24.) 
^22. Brooks. Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology. 1882. (6.) 

203 



204 WORKS OF REFERENCE. 

23. Burrill and Earle. Parasitic Fungi of Illinois. 1SS7. (35.) 

^24. BUMPUS. Course in Invertebrate Zoology. 1892. (30.) 

25. Calderwood. Evolution and Man's Place in Nature. 1893. ( 2 4-) 

26. Campbell. Elements of Structural and Systematic Botany. 1891. (13.) 

27. Text-book of Elementary Biology. 1893. ( 2 4-) 

28. Carpenter. The Microscope and Its Revelations. 7th ed., 1891. (4.) 

29. Vegetable Physiology. 1S94. (24.) 

30. Clark. Practical Methods in Microscopy. 1894. (15.) 

31. Claus and Sedgwick. Text-book of Zoology. 2 vols. 1890. (24.) 

32. Clodd. The Story of Creation. 1889. (22.) 

33. Comstock. Introduction to Entomology. 18S8. (36.) 

34. COLTON. Elementary Course in Practical Zoology. 1S88. (15.) 

35. Cooke and Berkley. Fungi, their Nature and Use. 1874. (3.) 

36. Cooke. Introduction to Fresh Water Algae. 1890. (3.) 

37. Cope. The Origin of the Fittest. 1SS7. (3,) 
3S. Cox. Protoplasm and Life. 1890. (16.) 

39. Creevey. Recreations in Botany. 1894. (14.) 

40. Darwin and Acton. Physiology of Plants. 1894. (8.) 

41. Darwin, Charles. Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms. 

1881. ( 3 .) 

42. On the Origin of Species. 1891. (3.) 
^43. Davis. A Text-book of Biology. 188S. (4.) 

\44. Dodge. Introduction to Practical Biology. 1894. ( l 4-) 

"45. De Bary. Lectures on Bacteria. 2d ed., 1887. (24.) 

46. Comparative Morphology and Biology of Fungi. 1887. (24.) 

47. Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns. 1884. (24.) 

48. De Varigny. Experimental Evolution. 1891. (24.) 

49. Elmer. Organic Evolution. 1S90. (24.) 

50. Farlow. Marine Algae. 1879. (12.) 

51. FlSKE. The Doctrine of Evolution. 1891. (3.) 

52. Foster and Shore. Physiology for Beginners. 1894. (24.) 

53. Foster and Langley. Elementary Physiology and Histology. 1 891. 

(24.) 

54. Frey. The Microscope and Microscopical Technology. 1872. (37.) 

55. Geddes. Chapters on Modern Botany. 1893. (32.) 

56. Variation and Selection. 1883. (10.) 



WORKS OF REFERENCE. 205 

57. Goebel. Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants. 

1887. ( 7 .) 

58. Gage, S. H. The Microscope and Histology. 1891. (2.) 

59. Gage, Selina. The Great World's Farm. 1893. ( 2 4-) 

60. Gegenbaur. Elements of Comparative Anatomy. 1878. (24.) 

61. Galton. English Men of Science. 1893. (3-) 

62. Gibson. A Text-book of Biology. 1889. (22.) 

63. GlLMAN, Lessons in Zoology. 1892. (27.) 

64. Goodale and Sprague. The Wild Flowers of America. 1885. (6.) 

65. Physiological Botany. 1885. (1.) 

66. Gradle. Bacteria and the Germ Theory. 1887. (4.) 

67. Gosse. Evenings at the Microscope. 1884. (3.) 

68. Gray. Manual of Botany. 6th ed., 1887. (1.) 

69. School and Field Book of Botany. 1887. (1.) 

70. Griffiths. Physiology of the Invertebrata. 1892. (3.) 

71. Grove. Synopsis of Bacteria and Yeast Fungi. 1884. (38.) 

72. Haddon. Introduction to Embryology. 1887. (4.) 

73. Halsteau. American Species of Characese. 1879. (5.) 

74. Harvey. Sea Mosses. 1881. (6.) 

75. Heilprin. Distribution of Animals. 1886. (3.) 

76. Henslow. The Origin of Floral Structures. 1888. (3.) 

77. Hertwig. Embryology of Man and Mammals. 1888. (34.) 

78. Howes. Atlas of Practical Biology. 1885. (24.) 

v 79. Huxley and Martin. Elementary Biology. 1892. (24.) 

v 80. Huxley. Anatomy of Invertebrates. 1888. (3 -}-- 

81. Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals. 1888. (4.) 

82. Study of Zoology. The Crayfish. 1879. (3.) 

83. On the Origin of Species. 1892. (3.) 

84. Evolution. 1889. (10.) 

85. Hyatt. Guides to Science Teaching. 1878-90. (15.) 

86. Jordan. Manual of the Vertebrates of the United States. 1890. (25.) 

Sy. Kent. Manual of the Infusoria. 1880. (39.) 

v8& Korscheldt. Embryology of Invertebrates. 1894. (24.) 

89. LANKESTER. Articles, Protozoa, Hydrozoa, etc. 1890. (10.) 

90. The History of Creation. 4th ed., 1893. (3-) 
^91. Lang. Comparative Anatomy. 1891. (24.) 

92. Laurie. The Food of Plants. 1893. ( 2 4-) 



> 



206 WORKS OF REFERENCE. 

93. Le Conte. Evolution. 1891. (3.) 

94. Lee. The Microtomist's Vade Mecum. 1890. (4.) 

95. Lesquereux and James. Manual of North American Mosses. 1884. 

(9-) 

96. Lewes. Physiology of Common Life. 2 vols. i860. (3.) 

97. Lubbock. Seedlings. 1892. (3.) 

98. Instinct and Intelligence of Animals. 1888. (3.) 

99. The Beauties of Nature. 1892. (24.) 

100. Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. 1886. (24.) 

101. Ants, Bees, and Wasps. 1882. (3.) 

102. British Wild Flowers. 1875. ( 2 4«) 

103. On Flowers and Insects. 1879. (24.) 

104. Lydekker. Phases of Animal Life. 1892. (22.) 

105. Marshall. Vertebrate Embryology. 1893. (33-) 

—*■ — 106. Marshall and Hurst, i- A Course in Zoology. 1888. (JJ^T^ 

107. Marshall. The Frog. 4th ed., 1891. (33.) 

108. Biological Lectures. 1894. (24.) 

109. Mivart. The Common Frog. 1874. (24.) 

no. The Cat. 1881. (32.) 

in. Mill. The Realm of Nature. 1 891. (32.) 

112. McKendrick and Snodgrass. The Physiology of the Senses. 1893. 

(32.) 

113. Massee. The Plant World. 1891. (24.) 

114. Moale. A Hand-book of Vertebrate Dissection. 1881. (24.) 

115. Morgan. Animal Biology. 1889. (22.) 
6. Animal Life and Intelligence. ,1891. (13.) 

117. Morley. A Songfbf Life. 1894. (25.) 

118. Muller. Fertilization of Flowers. 1886. (24.) 

119. NEWHALL. The Shrubs of North-Eastern America. 1894. (29.) 

120. Nicholson. A Manual of Zoology. 2d ed., 1893. (3-) — * 

121. Orr. A Theory of Development and Heredity. 1893. ( 2 4«) 
k — h£2. Orton. Comparative Zoology. 1892. (14.) 

123. Osborn. Columbian University Biological Lectures. 1894. (24.) 

124. Packard. Zoology for High Schools and Colleges. 7th ed., 1889. (17.) 

125. Parker. A Course in Vertebrate Zootomy. 1884. ( 2 4-) 
" 126. Lessons in Elementary Biology. 1892. (24.) 



WORKS OF REFERENCE. 207 

127. Piersol. Text-book of Normal Histology. 1893. ( 2I 

128. Poulton. The Colors of Animals. 1889. (3.) 

J^S29. Ralleston and Jackson. Forms of Animal Life. 1888. (7.) 

130. Romanes. Animal Intelligence. 1892. (3.) 

131. Darwin and After Darwin. 1892. (28.) 

132. Sachs. Physiology of Plants. 1886. (24.) 

133. Schafer. The Essentials of Histology. 3d ed., 1892. (4.) 

134. Schutzenberger. On Fermentation. 1893. (3.) 

135. Scudder. Butterflies of Northern U. S. and Canada. 1894. (17.) 

136. The Life of the Butterfly. 1894. (17.) 

137. Sedgewick and Wilson. General Biology. 1889. (17.) 

138. Semper. Animal Life as affected by Natural Conditions. 1879. (3.) 

139. Shaler. The Interpretation of Nature. 1893. ( J 8.) 
"^-440. Shipley. Zoology of the Invertebrata: 1^93. (24.) 

141. Sollas. Article, Sponges. (10.) 

142. Spalding. The Study of Common Plants. 1893. (15.) 

143. Spencer. The Principles of Biology. 2 vols. 1866. (3.) 
n^J44. Stebbing. A History of Crustacea." 1894. (3.) 

145. Stevenson. Boys and Girls in Biology. 1894. (3.) 

^146. Stormonth. A Manual of Scientific Terms. 6th ed., 1885. (20.) 

147. Strausberger. Hand-book of Practical Botany. 1889. (24.) 

148. Taylor, J. E. The Playtime Naturalist. 1889. (3.) 

149. Taylor, Thomas. Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the United 

States. 1892-94. (31.) 

^^50. Thomson. The Study of Animal Life": — rSp. (32.) 

151. Thompson. The Outlines of Zoology. 1892. (39.) 

152. Trouessakt. Microbes, Ferments, and Moulds. 1885. (3.) 

153. Tuckerman. A Synopsis of North-American Lichens. 1881. (9.) 

154. UNDERWOOD. North- American Hepaticae. (35.) 

155. Our Native Ferns and their Allies. 1888. (17.) 

156. VAN BENEDEN. Animal Parasites and Messmates. 1889. (3.) 

157. VINES. Lectures on the Physiology of Plants. 1886. (24.) 

158. Wolle. The Fresh Water Algae of the United States. 1887. (26.) 

159. Desmids of the United States. 1892. (26.) 

160. Wallace. Darwinism. 1S89. ( 2 4-) 



208 LIST OF PUBLISHERS. 

161. Whitman. Methods in Microscopic Investigation. 1885. (6.) 

162. Biological Lecture at Wood's Holl Laboratory. 2 vols. 1890 and 

1893. (130 

163. Weisman. The Germ Plasma. 1893. (3 2 -) 

164. Essays on Heredity, etc. 1892. (24.) 

165. Wiederscheim. Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates. 1888. (24.) 

166. Wilson. Embryology of the Earthworm. 1887. (19.) 

167. Wilder. Anatomical Technology. 1886. (2.) 

168. Wright. The Friendship of Nature. 1894. (24.) 

169. Woodhead. Bacteria and their Products. 1891. (32.) 
-170. Woodward. Article, Crustacea. 1889. (10.) 

171. Manual of the Mollusca. 1890. (40.) 



LIST OF PUBLISHERS.* 



1. American Book Company, New York. 

2. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, N.Y. 

3. D. Appleton & Co., New York and Chicago. 

4. P. Blakison, Son, & Co., Philadelphia. 

5. Boston Natural History Society, Boston. 

6. Bradlee, Whidden, Boston. 

7. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 

8. C. J. Clay & Sons, London. 

9. Cassino & Co., Boston. 

10. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

11. Englehard & Co., Chicago. 

12. United States Fish Commission, Washington. 

13. Ginn & Co., Boston. 

14. Harper Bros., New York. 

15. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston and Chicago, 

16. N. C. Hodges, New York. 

17. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 

18. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 

19. Journal of Morphology, Boston. 

20. McLachlan & Stewart, London, 

* jSee explanation on p. 203. 



LIST OF PUBLISHERS. 2Qg 



21. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. 

22. Longmans, Green & Co., London. 

23. D. Lothrop Co., Boston. 

24. Macmillan & Co., New York. 

25. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago. 

26. Moravian Publishing Co., Bethlehem, Pa. 

27. New England Publishing Co., Boston. 

28. Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago. 

29. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 

30. Preston & Rounds, Providence, R.I. 

31. Reports of Agriculture of United States, Washington. 

32. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 
^^. Smith, Elder & Co., London. 

34. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., New York. 

35. L T niversity of Illinois, Champaign, 111. 

36. J. H. Comstock, Ithaca. N.Y. 

37. Wm. Wood & Co., New York. 

38. Chatto & W 7 indus, London. 

39. Bogue & Co.. London. 

40. J. Y. Pentland & Co., London. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 



abdomen — L. abdomen, the belly, 25 — appendages, 26. 

abducens — L. ab, from; duco, I lead, 84. 

aboral — L. ab, from; os, mouth, 11, — abural tentacles, 11. 

abortivus — L. abortus, an untimely birth. 158. 

acer — L. acer, a maple tree, 185. 

acetabulum — L. acetabulum, a cup-shaped vessel, 103. 

actinozoa — Gr. aktis, a ray; zo'on, an animal, 170. 

acutiloba — L. acutus, sharp; lobus, a lobe, 183. 

adductor — L. ad, to; duco, to lead, — impression, 45, — muscle, 45. 

air-bladder, 63. 

air-chamber, 136 — air-sacs, 39. 

albidum — L. albus, white, 182. 

alga — L. alga, a sea-weed, 121. 

alimentary canal — L. alimentum, food, 14, 20, 31, 49, 61, 78. 

alismales — alisma, a water-plantain, 175. 

allium — L. allium, garlic, 181. 

allolobophora tumida — Gr. alios, other; lobos, a pod; phoreo, I bear; L. 

tut nidus, swollen, 17. 
alternate, 159. 

alternation of generation, 141. 

amaryllidaceae — L. Amaryllis, a country girl celebrated by Vergil, 182. 
amblystoma — Gr. amblus, blunt; stoma, mouth, 172. 

ambulacra — L. ambulacrum, a walking place, 12 — ambulacral groove, 12. 
amentales — L. amentum, thong, 178. 

americana — N. L. americanus, pertaining to the Western Hemisphere, 185. 
amoeba proteus — Gr. amoibos, exchanging; L. Proteus, a self-transformed 

sea-god, 1. 
amoeboid elements — Gr. amoibos, exchanging; eidos, resemblance, 5. 
ampelidse — Gr. ampelis, a small vine, 184. 

ampelopsis — Gr. ampelis, a small vine; opsis, appearance, 184. 
amphibia — Gr. amphi, both; bios, life, 89, 171. 
amphidiscs — Gr. amphi, both; diskos, a disc, 5. 
amphioxus — Gr. a??iphi, both; oxus, pointed, 67, 171. 

210 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 211 

ampullae — L. ampulla, a bellied bottle, 15. 

anacharis — Gr. ana, without; charis, grace, 6. 

analogy — Gr. analogos, proportionate, 56 — analogous, 56. 

anatomy — Gr. ana, up; temnein, to cut, 13. 

angiospermse — Gr. anggeion, a vessel; sperma, seed, 161, 175. 

angustifolium — L. angustus, narrow; folium, leaf, 182. 

animalcule — L. animalculum, a little animal, 2. 

annelida — L. annellus, a little ring, 1 70. 

annulus — L. annulus, a ring, 145. 

anodonta — Gr. an, without; odont, tooth, 42. 

ante-brachium — L. ante, before; brachiuni, arm, 73. 

antennae — L. antenna, a sailyard, 27, 35 — antennary arteries, 30. 

antennules — small antennae, 28. 

ante-orbital — L. ante, before; or bis, a circle, 56. 

anterior — L. anterior, former, that which lies before, 10. 

anthes — Gr. anthos, a flower, 159. 

antheridium — Gr. antheros, flowery, 126 — antheridial branch, 137. 

anus — L. anus, the posterior external opening of the alimentary canal, 15, 

48, 55, 78, 94. 
aorta — Gr. aeiro, I raise up, 49, 65, 95, 96. 
apetalous — Gr. a, without; petalon, a leaf, 177. 
apex, 129. 

apical — L. apex, a tip — buds, 129, 142; — cells, 1 31. 
apoda — Gr. a, without; pons, a foot, 172. 
apteria — Gr. a, without; pteron, a wing, 105. 

aquilegia canadensis — L. aquila, an eagle; L. canadensis, of Canada, 183. 
arachnida — Gr. arachne, a spider, 170. 
arch — carotid, 81 ; neural, 75; pectoral,*]^, 93; pelvic, 76, 93; pulmo-cu- 

taneous, 81; systemic, 81. 
archegonia — Gr. arche, beginning; gone, seed, 138 — archegonial branch, 

138. 

areolae — L. areola, a small open place, 136. 

arisaema — Gr. arum, and a sign, 182. 

aristolochiaceae — Gr. aristos, best; lochia, childbirth, 185. 

aroidales — L. arum, the plant wake-robin; eidos, resemblance, 176, 182. 

artery — Gr. aer, air; ierco, I preserve, 30 ; arterial bulb, 65; branchial — , 

65, 80, 95, 96. 
arthropoda — Gr. arthron, a joint; pous, foot, 1 70. 
articulations — L. articulus, a joint, 27; articulated. 
artiodactyla — Gr. artios, even in number; daktulos, a finger or toe, 172. 



212 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

asarales — Gr. asaron, hazel-wort, 1 79. 

asarum — Gr. asaron, hazel-wort, 185. 

ascidians — Gr. askidion, a little bag, 171. 

ascospores — Gr. askos, bag, 1 20. 

ascomycetes — Gr. askos, a bag; mukes, a mushroom, 174. 

asplenium filix-foemina — Gr. a, without; splen, the spleen; filix, a fern, 

femina, female, 141. 
asterales — Gr. aster, a star, 181. 

asterias vulgaris — Gr. aster, a star; L. vulgus, common, 10. 
asteroidea — Gr. aster, a star; eidos, resemblance, 170. 
atlas — Gr. a, intensive; tlao, bear, 74. 
atrium — L. atriimi, a front hall, 80. 

auditory — L. audio, I hear, 84; — sacs, 38, — apperture, 105. 
auricle — L. auris, an ear; left, 49, 79, 95; right, 49, 79, 95. 
auriculars — L. auris, an ear, 105. 
austrian pine, 148. 
aves — L. avis, a bird, 107, 171. 
axial skeleton — L. axis, a pole, an axle-tree, 73. 
axillar plates — L. axilla, armpit, 92. 
axil of leaf, 129. 
axis — L. axis, axle, 1 1 1 . 
axis cylinder, 89. 

bacteria — Gr. bacterion, a rod, 120, 173. 

baptisia — Gr. baptists, a dipping, 186. 

barbs — L. barba, a beard, 106. 

barbules — diminutive of preceding, 106. 

bark, 151. 

base — L. basis, the foundation, 129. 

basidiomycetes — L. basidium, a little pedestal; Gr. mukes, a mushroom, 

174. 
bass, 53. 

batrachia — Gr. batrachos, a frog, 172. 
beak, 43. 
bee, 41. 
beetle, 41. 

bellidifolium — L. bellus, pretty; folium, leaf, 187. 
belly, 78. 

berberidaceae — L. berberis, the barberry, 183. 
bifida — L. bis, twice; fidi, I split, 186. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 213 

biflorum — L. bis, twice; floreo, to bloom, 181 ; bifolium, 182. 

bilateral — L. bis, twice; latus, a side, bilaterally symmetrical, 18. 

bile — L. bills, bile, 31, 62 — bile sac, 62, 79. 

biology — Gr. bios, life; logos, a discourse; — of food, 33. 

biped — L. bis, twice; pes, a foot, 109. 

bi-polar — L. bis, twice; Gr. polos, pivot — nerve-cells, SS. 

bivium — L. bis, twice; via, the way, 11. 

black knot, 133. 

bladder, 64. 

blood-vessels, 21. 

body-cavity, 13. 

bone, frontal, 100, 11 1; malar, ill; nasal, 74, 99; occipital, 100, 101, in. 

bony scales, 92. 

borraginaceae — Sp. boraja, borage, 187. 

brachial plexus — L. brachium, arm; plexus, twisted, 85. 

brachiopoda — Gr. brachion, arm; pons, foot, 171. 

brachium — L. brachiiwi, arm, 73. 

bracken fern — L. Ger. brake, 140. 

bracts, 152. 

brain, 65, 82; white matter, %Z\ gray matter, ^. 

branchial — Gr. brangchia, gills of a fish, 59; — arch, 59; — chambers, 47; — 

siphon, 48. 
branchiostegal — Gr. brangchia, gills; stege, a cover, 58. 
brassica — L. brassica, cabbage, 183. 
bridge, 91. 

bronchi — Gr. brongchos, the wind-pipe, 80; bronchial tube, 72, 94. 
brook-silk, 121. 
brow-spot, 72. 

bryophyta — Gr. bruon, moss; phuton, plant, 134, 139, 174. 
bryozoa — Gr. bruon, moss; zoon, animal, 171. 
buccal sac — L. bucca, the cheek, 20. 
bundle sheath, 144, 150. 
bursa-pastoris — L. bursa, a purse; pastoris, of a shepherd, 183. 

caecum — L. cacus, blind, 13, 62; gastric — , 41, 14. 

caloptenus spretus — Gr. kalos, beautiful ; pteron, winged ; L. spretus, despised, 

34- 
calyx — L. a flower cup, 158. 

cambarus immunis — N. L. cammarus, lobster; immunis, devoid, 24. 
campanales — L. campana, a bell, 181. 



214 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

canadense — pertaining to Canada, 181, 183, 185. 

candidum — L. candidus, white, 183. 

canine — L. cants, a dog, 112. 

capillaries — L. capillus, a hair, 86. 

capsella — diminutive of L. capsa, box, 183. 

capsule — L. capsula, a little chest, 145. 

carapace — Fr. carapace, gourd, 25, 91. 

cardamine — Gr. kardamine, cress-like, 183. 

cardiac — Gr. kardia, the heart; — pouch, 14; — chamber, 31. 

cardinal tooth — L. car do, door hinge, 44. 

carnivora — L. caro, flesh; voro, I devour, 172. 

carotid — Gr. karoo, I stupefy, — arch, 81. 

carpel — Gr. karpos, fruit, 152. 

carpophyta — Gr. karpos, fruit; phuton, plant, 133, 174. 

carpophyll — Gr. karpos, fruit; phidlou, leaf, 148. 

carpus — L. carpus, the wrist, 76, 93, 102. 

cartilage — L. cartilago, gristle, 55. 

caryophyllales — Gr. karnon, a nut; phtdlon, a leaf, 178. 

castalia, 183. 

cat, 108. 

catkin — (cat and little), 151. 

caudal — L. cauda, a tail; — fin, 26, 55. 

caudata — L. cauda, a tail, 172. 

caulicle — L. caulis, stalk, 164. 

caulome — L. caulis, a stem, 160. 

celastrales — Gr. k'elasiron, an evergreen tree (holly), 178; celastrus, 184. 

cell — L. cella, a storeroom, 3, 8; guard — , 136; — , 131, 130; neuroglia 
-,89. 

cellular tissue, 66. 

cellulose — L. cellula, a small storeroom, 118. 

central disc, 10. 

centrum — Gr. kentron, centre; L. centrum, the centre, 67. 

cephalic — Gr. kephate, the head , — region, 25; — appendages, 27. 

cephalopoda — Gr. kephate, head; pous, foot, 171. 

cephalo-thorax — Gr. kephale, the head; thorax, the chest, 25. 

cere — L. cera, wax, 104. 

cerebellum — L. cerebellum, a small brain, 66. 

cerebrum — L. cerebrum, the brain, 65, 82; cerebral hemisphere, 66; cerebro- 
spinal axis, 82. 

ceratodus — Gr. keras, horn ; eidos, form, 171. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 21 5 

cernuum — L. cernuus, bending forward, 181. 

cervical — L. cervix, the neck; — groove, 25. 

cetacea — L. cetus, a whale, 172. 

characeae- — Gr. chair 0, I am glad, 174 ; chara, 128. 

chara fragilis — Gr. chair 0, I am glad; l^.fragilis, brittle, 128. 

cheek, 58. 

chelae — Gr. chele, a claw, 26. 

chelaped — Gr. chele, claw or hoof; L. pes, foot, 27. 

chelonia — Gr. chelone, a tortoise, 172. 

chiroptera — Gr. cheir, a hand; pteron, wing, 172. 

chitin — Gr. chiton, a coat of mail, 29. 

chlorophyll — Gr. chloros, grass-greer ; phullon, leaf, 118; — cells, 136; 

— bands, 122. 
choripetalous — Gr. choris, apart; petalon, leaf, 177. 
chromatophores — Gr. chroma, color; phoreo, I bear, 122. 
chrysemys marginata — Gr. chrusos, gold ; emys, turtle, 90. 
cinerea — L. cinerens, ashy, 188. 
cingulum — L. cingulum, a girdle, 18. 
circular muscle, 23. 
clavicle — L. clavis, a key, 75. 

cloaca — L. cloaca, a common sewer, 78; cloacal siphon, 48, 94. 
club-moss, 146. 
coeca (See ccecum.) 
coecilia — L. ccecus, blind, 172. 

ccelenterata — Gr. koilos, hollow; enteron, a bowel, 9, 170. 
coeloblasteae — Gr. koilos, hollow; blastos, a sprout, germ, 174. 
coelom — Gr. koilos, hollow, 13. 

coleochaetae — koleos, a sheath; chaite, horse-hair, 174. 
COlumbinas — L. columba, a dove, 172. 
columella — L. columella, a small column, 100. 
commelinaceae — Commelin, a Dutch botanist, 182. 
compositae, 187. 
compressed, 54. 

condyle — Gr. kondulos, a knuckle or knob; occipital — , 74, 100. 
cone, 152. 

coniferae — L. conus, a cone; fero, I bear, 175. 
conjugatae — L. con, together; jugum, a yoke, 174. 
contour — Fr. contour, turn, 105. 

COracoids — Gr. korakos, of a crow; eidos, resemblance, 75; pre — , 93, 102. 
coral polyp — L. coralium, red coral; polypus, many feet, 9. 



2l6 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

COrnus — L. cornu, a horn, 152. 

cornea — L. corneus, horny, 33, 56. 

corolla — L. corolla, a small crown, 158. 

coronaria — L. corona, a crown, 186. 

corpuscle — L. corpus, a body, 85; lymph, 85; — red, 85; white, 85. 

cortical — L. cortex, bark, 131 ; — cells, 130; — band, 156. 

costal plates — L. costa, rib, 91. 

cotyledon — Gr. kotule, a cup-shaped cavity, 163. 

coxa — L. coxa, the hips, 36. 

cranium — L. cranium, the skull, 65, 74. 

crayfish, 24. 

crinoidea — Gr. krinon, a lily; eidos, resemblance, 170. 

cristatella — L. crista, a little crest or tuft, 171. 

crocodilia — L. crocodilus, a crocodile, 172. 

crop, 21. 

crown, 132. 

cruciferae — L. crux, a cross; fero, I bear, 183. 

crus — L. cms, the leg, 73. 

Crustacea — L. crusta, skin or bark, 33, 170. 

crystalline — L. crystallwn, ice, 33. 

ctenoid — Gr. ktenos, of a comb, 60. 

ctenophora — Gr. ktenos, of a comb; phoreo, I bear, 170. 

cucullata — L. cucullus, a hood, 184. 

CUpules — L. cupula, a little cup, 135. 

cupuliferae — L. cupida, a little cup; fero, to bear, 185. 

cursores — L. cursor, a runner, 172. 

cutaneous — L. cutis, the skin, — arch, 81. 

cuticle — L. cutis, the skin, 19, 24. 

cuttlefish — L. cuticula, a little skin, 51. 

cyanophyceae — Gr. kuanos, dark blue; phukos, sea-weed, 173 

cycadacae — L. cycas, a kind of palm, 175. 

Cyclops — Gr. kuklops, round eye, 170. 

cypripedium — Gr. kupris, Venus; podion, slipper, 183. 

daphnales — from Daphne, who changed into a laurel, 179. 

dasycarpum — Gr. dasus, thick; karpos, fruit, 185. 

deliquescent — L. deliquesco, I dissolve, 147, 148. 

dentary — L. dens, a tooth, 58, 74, 99. 

dental formulae, 112. 

dentalium — L. dens, a tooth, 171. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 2\y 

depth of fish, 54. 

desmids — Gr. desmos, a bond, 124. 

diatoms — Gr. dia, through; tom~e, a cutting, 125. 

dichotomous — Gr. dic/ia, in two parts; tome, a cutting, 124. 

dicotyledon — Gr. dis, twice; kotule, a hollow, — cotyledonous, 162, 176. 

digestion — L. digestio, the dissolving of food, 2. 

digits — L. digitus, a finger, 73. 

dipnoi — Gr. dis, twice; pnoe, breath, 171. 

distal — L. disfo, I stand apart, 7; — end, 7. 

divaricata — L. divaricatus, spread asunder, 186. 

dodecatheon — Gr. dodeka, twelve; theos, a god, 186. 

dog, 108. 

doliolum — L. doliolum, a small jar, 171. 

dorsal — L. dorsum, back, 18; — dorsal fissure, SS; — horns, 88. 

dove, 98. 

dracontium — Gr. dracon, a dragon, 182. 

dura mater — L. durns, hard; mater, mother, 82. 

dwarf branches, 149. 

ear-sac, 28. 

earthworm, 17. 

ebenales — L. ebenus, ebony, 180. 

echinodermata — Gr. echinos, hedge-hog; derma, skin, 170. 

echinoidea — Gr. echinos, a hedge-hog; eidos, like, 16, 170. 

ectoderm — Gr. ektos, outside; derina, skin, 7. 

ectopistes migratorius — Gr. ektopizein, to wander; L. migrator, wanderer, 

98. 
ectosarc — Gr. ektos, outside; sark, flesh, 2. 
edentata — L. e, without; dens, tooth, 172. 
egg, 8. 

elasmobranch — Gr. elasma, a plate of metal; brangchia, gills, 68. 
embryo — Gr. en, in; bruo, I bud, 23, 163. 
endoderm — Gr. en, in; der??ia, skin, 7. 
endopodite — Gr. endon, within; podes, feet, 26. 
endosarc — Gr. endon, within; sark, the flesh, 2. 
endosperm — Gr. endon, within; sperma, seed, 164. 
enteron — Gr. enteron, the intestine, 7. 

epidermis — Gr. epi, upon; derma, skin, 22, 60, 143, 159; epidermal plates, 9*. 
equisetum — L. equns, horse; seta, hair, 146. 
equisetinae — L. equus, horse; seta, hair, 174. 



2l8 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

erecta — L. er edits, set up, 182. • 

ericales — L. erica, heath, 180. 

ericaceae — L. erica, heath, 186. 

erigeron — Gr. erigeron, early-old, 187. 

erythronium — Gr. eruthros, red, 182. 

euphorbiales — Euphorbus, an ancient physician, 177. 

eustachian tube — Eustachius, who discovered it, 72. 

excurrent — L. ex, out of; currens, running, 147, 148. 

exhalent siphon — L. ex, out; halare, to breathe, 48. 

exopodite — Gr. exo, outside ; podes, feet, 26. 

exoskeleton — Gr. exo, outside; skellein, to dry, 11. 

extensor — L. extensor, that which stretches out; — muscle, 14. 

eye-spot, 13; compound eye, 28, 35; simple — , 35; pineal — , 72. 

facet — Yx.facette, diminution of face, 28. 

facial, 84; — bones, 74; — angle, 112. 

fagopyrum esculentum — L. fagus, the beech; puros, wheat; L. esculenlus, 

full of food, 162. 
false diaphragm — Gr. diaphragma, a partition wall, 61. 
false gills, 59. 

fascicularis — Yj. fasciculus, a small bundle, 183. 

felis — L. felis, cat; — catus, 108; — domesticata, 108; maniculata, 108. 
felis domesticata — L. felis, cat; L. domns, house, 108. 
femur — L. femur, the thigh, 36, 73, 76, 94, 103. 
fenestra — ^.fenestra, a window; — ovalis, 100; — rotunda, 100. 
fertile leaves, 129. 

fibro-vascular, 141; — bundles, 143, 150, 156, 159. 
fibula — L. fibula, a buckle, 94, 103. 
ficoidales — L. fie us, a fig; Gr. eidos, resemblance, 179. 
filament — ~L.filuw, a thread, 122. 
filicineae — h.filices, ferns, 174. 

filoplumes — Yj.filum, thread; pluma, a feather, 106. 
fin, 54; anal — ,55; caudal — ,26,55; dorsal — ,54; medium — ,55. 
fission — L.fissus, cleft, 2. 
fissure, 82; dorsal — , 88; ventral — ,88. 
flexor muscle — L. flexor, that which bends, 32. 
floral envelope, 158. 
florideae — L.floridus, flowery, 174. 
flowers, 151. 
fly, 41. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS, 219 

fcetidus — L.fzdo, fetid, 182. 

foliage leaves, 149. 

food particles, 2. 

foot, 47. 

foramen magnum — L. foramen, an opening; magnus, great, 74, 100; 

occipital foramen, 94. 
f oraminif era — L. foramen, an opening; fero, I carry, 169. 
fragaria — L.fraga, strawberries, 185. 
frog, 69. 

frond — h.frons, a leaf, 140. 
frontal, 99. 
fruit, 164. 

fruiting branches, 135. 
fucaceae — L. fucus, the rock lichen, 174. 
fucus — L. fucus, the rock lichen, 127. 
fulva — L. fulvus, deep yellow, 184. 
function — L. functus, to perform, execute, 1. 
funiculus — ~L. funiculus, a slender rope, 163. 
fungus — L. fungus, a mushroom, 117. 
furcula — L. furca, a fork, 102. 

gallinacei — L. gallina, a hen, 1 72. 

gamopetalous — G*. gamos, union; petalon. leaf, 180. 

ganglia — Gr. gangglion, tumor, 22. 

ganoid — Gr. ganos, splendor, 68. 

ganoidei — Gx. ganos, brightness; eidos, like, 171. 

gasteropoda — Gr. gaster, stomach; pons, foot, 171. 

gastric mill — Gr. gaster, stomach, 31. 

gastrula — L. gastrula, a little stomach, 6. 

gemmae — L. gemma, a bud, 136. 

gemmules — \.. gemma, a bud, 5. 

gentianales — Gentian, ancient king of Illyria, 180. 

geraniales — Gr. geranos, a crane; Gr. geranion, crane's bill, 178. 

geraniaceae — Gx. geranion, crane's bill, 184; geranium, 184. 

giganteum — L. gigajiteus, like a giant, 181. 

gill, 29, 46, 59; — arch, 59; — chambers, 29; — clefts, 59. 

gizzard — Prov. Fr. gres, gravel, 21. 

glaucous — Gr. glaukos, blue-gray, 149. 

glenoid cavity — Gr. glen'e, a socket; eidos, resemblance, 102. 

glochidia — Gr. glochis, a pointed end, 51. 



220 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

glomerules — L. glomus, a ball of thread, 87. 

glossopharyngeal — Gx.glossa, the tongue; pharynx, the gullet, 84. 

glottis — Gx.glossa, the tongue, 72. 

glumales — L. ghwia, the husk of corn, 1 76. 

gnetacese — altered from its Malay name, 175. 

gonad — Gr. gonos, seed; of starfish, 15; of perch, 63; of frog, 79. 

grallatores — L. grallce, stilts, 172. 

grantia — Grant, proper name, 169. 

grasshopper, 34. 

gray commissures, 88. 

gray matter, 88. 

green felt, 125. 

green glands, 28. 

green slime, 117. 

gregarina — L. grex, a flock, 169. 

gregarinida — L.grex, a flock, 169. 

guard cells, 136. 

gular plates — L. gula, the windpipe, 92. 

gymnospermae — Gr. gumnos, naked; sperma, seed, 154, 174. 

hallux — L. hallux, the thumb, 76. 
head cells, 132. 

heart — A.S. heorte, the heart; of cray-fish, 29; of grasshopper, 39; of mus- 
sel, 48. 
heliozoa — Gr. helios, the sun; zo'dn, animal, 169. 
hepatic — Gr. hepar, the liver; — coeca, 13; — vein, 64. 
hepatica — Gr. hepar, the liver, 183. 
hepaticae — Gr. hepar, the liver, 1 74. 
herbacea — L. herba, an herb, 181. 
hermit crab, 33. 

heterocercal — Gr. heteros, another; kerkos, a tail, 55. 
hibernate — L. hibernns, relating to winter, 69. 
hicoria — of doubtful origin, 185. 
hilum — LT hilum, a. speck, 163. 
hinge ligament, 43. 
hinge tooth, 43. 

hirtum — L. hirtus, rough, hairy, 187. 
histological — Gr. histos, a tissue; logos, a discourse, 88. 
holothuroidea — L. holothurium, plant-like animal: eidos, form, 170. 
homocercal — Gr. homos, alike; kerkos, tail, 55. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 221 

homogeneous — Gr. homos, alike; genos, kind, 2. 

homology — Gr. homos, alike; logos, speech, 56, 57. 

homologous — Gr. homos, alike; logos, speech, 56, 57. 

humerus — L. humerus, the shoulder, 75, 93, 102. 

humilis — L. humilis, low, 185. 

hydra fusca — Gr. hud or, water; L.fuscus, dark-colored, 6, 170. 

hydrales — Gr. hudor, water, 176. 

hydrozoa — Gr. hudor, water; zoou, animal, 9, 170. 

hyoid apparatus — Gr. huoeides, shaped like the Greek letter Upsilon, 100, 

hypoglossal — Gr. hupo, under; glbssa, the tongue, 84. 

hopostome — Gr. hupo, under; stoma, mouth, 7. 

hypoxis — Gr. hypo, under; oxus, sharp, 182. 

ilium — L. ilium, flank, 94, 103. 

inarticulated rays, 54. 

incisors — L. incisus, cut into, 112. 

indusium — L. induo, I put on, 144. 

inferior umbilicus — L. inferior, low er; umbilicus, navel, 106. 

inflorescence — L. in, on; floresco, I blossom, 151. 

infusoria — L. infusus, poured into, 169. 

inguinal plates — L. inguen, the groin, 92. 

inhalent siphon — L. in, into; halare, to breathe, 48. 

innominate — L. in, not; nomeii, a name; — artery, 96. 

insecta — L. in, into; seco, to cut, 41, 170. 

insectivora — L. insecta; voro, to devour, 172. 

insertion — L. in, on; serere, to join, 78. 

interlobular — L. inter, between; lobus, a lobe, 87; — veins, 87. 

internodes — L. inter, between; nodus, a knot, 129; internodal cells, 130. 

inter-opercle — L. inter, between; opercuhun, a cover, 58. 

interradial angle — L. inter, between; radius, a ray, 11. 

interstitial cell — L. inter, between; sisto, I stand, 8. 

intestine — L. intestinus, within, 14, 41, 78, 94; large — , 62, 86. 

iris — L. iris, the rainbow, 56, 182. 

iridales — L. iris, the rainbow, 176. 

iridaceae — L. iris, the rainbow, 182. 

ischium — Gr. ischion, the hip, 94, 103. 

isthmus — ( ir. isthmos, a narrow passage, 58. 

juglans — L.jug/ans, a walnut tree, [85. 
juglandaceae — L. juglans, a walnut tree, 1S5. 



222 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

keel, ioi, 152. 
kidney, 64, 79, 94. 

labium — L. labium, the lower lip, 36; labial palpi, 36. 

labrum — L. labrum, the upper lip, 35. 

lacertilia — L. lacerta, a lizard, 172. 

lacteals — L. lac, milk, 87. 

lamiales — L. lamium, the dead-nettle, 180. 

lamellibranchiata — L. lamella, a plate; brangchia, gills, 171. 

lamina — L. lamina, a plate or leaf, 142. 

lamprey — L. lambera, to lick; petra, a rock, 67. 

lateral — L. latus, side; — line, 66, 142; — tooth, 44; — vessels, 121 ; 
bird, 149. 

laurales — L. laurus, a laurel, 177. 

larynx — Gr. larungx, the upper part of the windpipe, 80. 

leaflet, 129. 

leech, 23. 

leguminosae — L. legumen. pulse, 186. 

lemna — Gr. lemna, a water plant, 6. 

leptocardii — Gr. leptos, thin; kardia, heart, 171. 

leucantha — Gr. leukos, white; a?ithos, flower, 186. 

leucophcea — Gr. leukos, white; pogon, the beard, 186. 

lichens — Gr. lichen, tree-moss, 133. 

liliales — L. lilium, lily, 176; liliaceae, 181. 

line of growth, 43. 

lithospermum — Gr. lithos, a stone; sper?7ia, seed, 187. 

liver, 31; — cells, 50, 62, 79, 87, 94. 

liver-fluke, 23; — wort, 134. 

lizard, 97. 

lobster — A. S. lopustre, a shell-fish, 24, 33. 

lobules — L. labus, a lobe, 87. 

locomotion — L. locus, place; motis, motion, 2. 

longitudinal muscles, 23. 

lumbar — L. Iwnbus, a loin, 101. 

lungs, of frog, 80; of turtle, 94. 

lunularia — L. lunula, a little moon, 134. 

lupinus — L. lupus, a wolf, 186. 

lycopodinas — Gr. lukos, a wolf; pous, foot, 174. 

lymph — L. lymph, water, 86; lymphatics, 86; — corpuscles, 85 ; — cavi- 
ties, 77. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 223 

macrocarpa — L. makro, long, high; karpon, fruit, 185. 

maculatuin — L. macula, a spot, 184. 

madreporite — Fr. St. Madrepore, mother of stone; poros, a light friable 

stone, 11. 
malpighian capsule — after Professor Malpighi, 87. 
malva — L. malva, mallows, 184; malvacese, 177, 184. 
mal vales — L. malva, the mallow, 186. 
mammalia — L. mamma, a milk gland, 113, 172. 
mandible — L. mandibulum, a jaw; of cray-fish, 27; of grasshopper, 35; of 

frog, 74; of pigeon, 99. 
mantle, 46; — cavity, 46; — lobe, 46. 
manubrium — L. manubrium, a handle, 131. 
manus — L. manus, the hand, 73. 
marchantia polymorpha — after Marchant, a French botanist; Gr. polus, 

many; morphe, form, 134. 
marginal plates, 91. 

marsipobranchii — L. marsupium, a pouch; brangchia, gills, 171. 
marsupialia — Gr. marsipos, a pouch, 172. 
maxillae — L. maxilla, jaw, 27; maxillaries, 57; pre — , 57, 99; maxillary 

palpus, 36. 
maxillipeds — L. maxilla and pes, foot, 27. 
meadia — L. medius, middle, 186; — line, 18; — fins, 55. 
medulla oblongata — L. medulla, marrow; oblongus, long, 66. 
medullary rays, 151. 

mertensia, after Professor Mertens, of Bremen, 187. 
mesophyll — Gr. mesos, middle; phullon, leaf, 158. 

mesentery — Gr. mesos, middle; entera, intestine, 14,62; mesenteric artery, 96. 
mesoglcea — Gr. mesos, middle; gloia, glue, 8. 
mesothorax — Gr. ??iesos, middle; thorax, the chest, 37. 
meta-carpi — Gr. meta, beyond ; karpos, wrist, 76. 
metamorphosis — Gr. meta, beyond; morphe, form, 116. 
meta-tarsi — Gr. meta, beyond; tarsos, the sole of foot, 76, 94. 
meta-thorax — Gr. meta, beyond; thorax, chest, 37. 
metazoa — Gr. meta, beyond; zo'on, animal, 169. 
micropyle — Gr. mikros, small; pule, a gate, 153, 163. 
midrib, 135, 157. 
mildew, 127. 

molars — L. molar is, a mill-stone, 112. 
mollusca — L. mollis, soft, 51, 170. 
molluscoidea — L. mollusca, a mollusk; Gr. eidos, form, 171. 



224 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

monocotyledons — Gr. monos, single; kotute, a cup-shaped cavity, 162, 175. 

monotremata — Gr. monos, single; trema, an opening, 172. 

morphology — Gr. morphe, form; logos, description, 9. 

moss, 139. 

moth, 41. 

motor oculi — L. movere, to move ; oculus, the eye, 83. 

mouth, of hydra, 7; of starfish, 12; of earthworm, 19. 

mucous membrane — L. mucus, slimy; membra, the skin covering an organ, 86. 

multipolar nerve cells — multi, many; polus, a pole, a point, 88. 

musci — L. m uscus, moss, 174. 

muscle — L. muscuhis, a muscle, a little mouse, 40, 77, 78; extensor — , 31. 

mushroom — Fr. mousse, moss, 133. 

mussel, 42. 

muzzle — Fr. musean, the snout, 109. 

myriapoda — Gr. murioi, ten thousand; podes, feet, 170. 

myrtales — L. myrtus, a myrtle, 179. 

myxomycetes — Gr. muxa, slime; mukes, a fungus, 173. 

nares — L. nostrils, 56, 72. 

natatores — L. nato, I swim, 172. 

nautilus — Gr. nautilos, a sailor, 51. 

neck, 11, 105. 

nemathelminthes — Gr. n'ema, a thread; helmins, an intestinal worm, 170. 

nematocyst — Gr. nema, a thread; kustis, a bag, 8. 

nephridia — Gr. nephros, a kidney, 21. 

nerve, 12, 22, 32, 66, 82, 83, 84. 

neural — Gr. neuron, a nerve; — arch, 75; — spine, 67. 

newt, 89. 

nictitating membrane — L. nicto, to wink with eyes, 91, 104. 

nigra — L. niger, black, 185. 

nitella — L. niter e, to shine, 128. 

nodal cell, 130. 

node — L. nodus, a knoll, 1 29. 

nodules, 123. 

nucleus — L. nucleus, a small nut, a kernel, 2. 

nymphacea — L. ny?7ipha. a water nymph, 183. 

ocellus — L. ocellus, a little eye, 35. 

Odontoid peg — Gr. odous, a tooth; eidos, resemblance, III. 

cedogonieae — Gr. oideo, I swell; gonos, offspring, 174. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 225 

(Esophagus — Gr. oio, I bear for another; phago, I eat, 31, 61. 

oesophageal collar — Gr. oio, I bear for another; phago, I eat, 32. 

officinale — L. officiate, medicinal, 187. 

oil globules, 127. 

olacales — L. olax, having a smell, 178. 

olfactory — L. olfacere, to smell; — lobes, 66; nerves, 82. 

onoclea stnithiopteris — Gr. onos, a vessel; kleio, I close; strouthos, ostrich; 

pteris, fern, 141. 
ontogeny — Gr. ontos, 3. being; gennao, to bring forth, S9. 
onycophora — Gr. onux, a. claw; phoros, bearing, 170. 
Oogonium — Gr. o'dn, an egg; gonos, offspring, 126. 
OOphore — Gr. o'dn, an egg; phoros, bearing, 141. 
OOsphere — Gr. o'dn, an egg; sphciira, a ball, 138. 
oospore — Gr. o'dn, an egg; sporos, seed, 126. 
OOphyta — Gr. o'dn, an egg; phnton, plant, 127, 174. 
operculum — L. operculum, a lid or cover; opercle, 58; inter — , 58. 
ophidia — Gr. ophis, a serpent, 172. 
Opposite — L. oppositum, placed against, 158. 
Optic — Gr. optikos, relating to sight; — chiaema, S^; — lobes, 66, 82; — 

nerves, 66, 83. 
oral — L. os } mouth, 11. 
orbit — L. orbita, a path, 56. 

orchis — Gr. orchis, a plant with thickened roots, 183. 
orchidales, 176; orchidacese, 183. 
organ — Gr. organon, an instrument or tool, 2. 

ornithorhynchus — Gr. ornithos, of a bird; rhynchos, snout, beak, 172. 
oscillaria — L. oscillum, suing, 124. 

OS innominatum — L. os, bone; in, not; nome?i, name, 103. 
ossicles — L. ossiculum, a small bone, 15. 
ostia — L. os, mouth, 30. 
ovum — L. . - urn, an egg, S. 
ovule — L. ozule, a little egg, 152. 
ovary — L. ovum, an egg, 7, 40, 63, 79, 95, 160. 
oviducts — L. ovum, egg; ductus, a duct, 31, 63, 79, 95. 
oviparous — I., ozum, egg; pario, I produce, 90. 
ovipositor — L. cvum, egg; positum, to place, 34. 
oxalis — L. ox us, sour, 184. 
oyster, 51. 

palatines — L. palatus, the palate. 57. 



226 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

palisade cells — Fr. palissade, a hedge-row of trees, 158. 
pallial line — L. palliiwi, mantle, 45; — cavity, 46. 
pallium — L. pallium, a mantle, 46. 
palmates — h.palma, the palm, 176. 
palpus — L. palpo, I touch gently, 27, 36. 
pancreas — Gr. pangkreas, the sweetbread, 79, 94. 
paniculata — L. panic ulus, a panicle, 186. 
paramaecium — Gx. para, side by side; mekos, length, 169. 
parasite — Gr. parasitos, one who eats at another's table or food, 23, 120. 
parenchyma — Gr. para, side by side; enchuma, tissue, 137, 143, 159. 
parietales — L. paries, a wall, 177. 
passeres — L. passer, a sparrow, 172. 
passiflorales — L.passio, passion; flos, a flower, 179. 
paste worm, 23. 
pecten — L. pecten, a comb, 171. 
pedata — L. pes, foot, 184. 
pedicel — L. pes, afoot, 135, 145. 
pedicellarise — L. pes, a foot, 1 2. 
peduncle — L. pedunculus, little foot, 152, 15$. 
peltatum — ~L. pel/a, a target or buckler, 183. 
pelvis — L. pelvis, a basin, 76; pelvic arch, 76; — girdle, 76. 
perch, 83. 

perca flavescens — L. perca, a perch; flavus, yellow, 53. 
perennial — L. per, through; annum, the year, 140. 

perennis — L. per, through; annum, the year, that lasts the year through, 186. 
perianth — Gr. peri, around; anthos, flower, 158. 

pericardium — Gr. peri, round about; kardia, heart, 80, 95; pericardial cav- 
ity, 48, 61; — sinus, 30. 
pericarp — Gr. peri, about; karpos, fruit, 164. 
periostracum — Gr. peri, round about; ostrakon, shell, 43. 
peripatus — Gr. peripatein, to walk around, 170. 
perisoma — Gr. peri, round about; soma, body, 10. 
perissodactyla — Gr. perissos, uneven ; daktulos, a finger, 1 72. 
peristome — Gr. peri, around; stoma, mouth, 12. 
peritoneum — Gr. peri, round about; teino, I stretch, 61, 86. 
personales — L. persona, a mask, 180. 
pes — L. pes, a foot, 73. 
petal — Gr. petalon, a leaf, 158. 
petiole — L. petiolus, a little foot, 157. 
petromyzon — Gr. petros, a rock; muzon, sucking, 171. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 227 

phalanges — Gr. phalangx, a line of battle, 76, 93, 94, 103. 

pharynx — Gr. pharungx, the windpipe, 20. 

phaseolus vulgaris — L. phaselus, a bean pod; vulgaris, common, 162. 

phloem — Gr. phloios, bark, 150; — sheath, 144, 158. 

phlox — Gr. phlox, a flame, 186. 

phyllome — Gr. phullon, a leaf, 160. 

phyllotaxy — Gr. phullon, a leaf; taxis, order, 153. 

phylogeny — Gr. phyle, a tribe; gennao, to bring forth, 89. 

physalia — Gr. phussalis, a bubble, a bladder, 9. 

physiology — Gr. phusis, nature; logos, a discourse, 3. 

pia mater — L. pia mater, a kind mother ; a fanciful name, 82. 

pigeon — Fr. pigeon, a pigeon, 98. 

pigment — L. pigmentum, paint, 33, 60; — cells, 33. 

pilosa — L. pilosus, hairy, 186. 

pineal body — L. pinea, a cone of a pine, 8^- 

pinnae — L. pinna, a feather, 142; pinnate; pinnuke, 142, 165. 

pinnipedia — L. pitzna, a feather; pes, a foot, 172. 

pinus sylvestris — L.pinus, a pine tree; sylva, a wood, 147. 

piperales — L. piper, pepper, 1 77. 

pirus — L. pirns, a pear tree, 186. 

pisces — L. piscis, a fish, 68, 171. 

pistil — L. pistillum, a pestle, 159. 

pith, 150. 

pituitary body — L. pituita, slime, 83. 

placenta — L. placenta, a cake; parietal — , 160; axial — , 160. 

plastron — Fr. plastron, a breastplate, 71. 

plates, marginal, dorsal, costal, 91. 

platyhelminthes — Gr. platus, broad; helmins, a worm, 170. 

pleurite — Gr. pleura, a rib, 26. 

plexus — L. plexus, to twist; brachial — , 85; sciatic — , 85. 

plumule — L. plumula, a little feather, 164. 

pneumatic tube — Gr. pneuma, air, 64. 

podophyllum — Gr. pons, foot; phullon, leaf, 183. 

polemoniales — Gr. polemonion, valerian, 180; polemoniace^e, 186. 

pollen — I., pollen, a fine flour; — grains, 152; — sacs, 152. 

polygonatum — Gr. polus, many; gonu, a knee, 181. 

polyp — Gr. polus, many; pons, foot, 6. 

porifera — Gr. poros, a pore; L. fero, I bear, 5, 169. 

posterior — L. posterior, after or behind, 10. 

prehension — L. prchendo, I lay hold of, 2. 



228 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

premolar — 1^. pre, before; ??iolares, the grinders, 112. 

primaries — L. primus, first, 105. 

primates — L. primus, first, 172. 

primulales — primus, fust, 180; piimulaceae, 186. 

proboscidea — L. proboscis, a trunk, 172. 

process, 67; tentacular — , 48. 

prosimiae — L. pro, before; simia, ape, 172. 

prostomium — Gr. pro, before; stoma, mouth, 19. 

prothallium — Ox. pro, before; thallos, a sprout, 141, 146. 

prothorax — Gr. pro, before; thorax, chest, 36. 

protista — Gr. protos, first, 169. 

protococcus viridis — Gr. protos, first; kokkos, a berry; L. viridis, green, 117. 

protonema — Gr. protos, first; nema, thread, 145. 

protophyta — protos, first; phuton, plant, 120, 173. 

protoplasm — Gr. protos, first; plasma, what has been formed, I. 

protopterus — Gr. protos, first; pteron, wing, 171. 

protozoa — Gr. pro~tos, first; zo'dn, an animal, 3, 169. 

proximal — L. proximus, nearest, 7. 

prunus — *L. primum, a plum, 185. 

pseud-acacia — Gr. pseudes, false; L. acacia, a thorn, 186. 

pseudopodia — Gr. pseudes, false; potts, foot, 1. 

pteridophyta — Gr. pteron, wing; phuton, plant, 146, 174. 

pteris aquilina — Gx. pteris, fern; L. aquila, eagle, 140. 

pteropoda — Gr. pteron, wing; pous, foot, 171. 

pterylse — Gr. pteron, a wing, 105. 

pubis — L. pubis, 94. 

pubescens — L. pubescius, hairy, 183, 184. 

puff-balls, 133. 

pupil — L. pupilla, a little girl, the pupil of the eye, 56. 

pyloric — Gr. pulores, a gate-keeper; — chamber, 31 ; — cceca, 61 ; — 

duct, 14; — sac, 14. 
pyrenoid — Gr. pur'en, the stone of fruit, 123. 

quadrate — L. quadratus, squared, 99. 

quadrupeds — L. quadrupes, four-footed, 109. 

quahog, an Indian name, 42. 

quercus — L. quercus, an oak, 185. 

quernales — L. quercus, an oak, 178. 

quill, 106; — feathers, 105. 

quinquefolia — L. quinque, five; folium, leaf, 184. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 229 

rabbit, 108. 

racemosa — L. racemus, a. stalk of a grape cluster, 182. 

radial — L. radius, a spoke; — nerve, 12; — water tube, 15; — radiale, 

102 ; — radio-ulnar, 75. 
radius — L. radius, a spoke of a wheel, 93, 102. 
ramenta — L. r amenta, scrapings, shavings, 142. 
rana pipiens — L. rana, a frog; pipio, I chirp, 69. 
ranales — L. rana, a frog, 177. 
range of vision, 56. 

ranunculus — L. rana, a little frog, 183; ranunculaceae, 183. 
raphides — Gr. rhaphis, a needle, 158. 
raptatores — L. raptor es, robbers, 172. 
ray, 11, 54, 56. 

receptacle — L. receptaculum, a storehouse, 135, 144, 158. 
rectum — L. rectus, straight, 50. 

rectus abdominis — L. rectus, straight; abdomen, the belly, 77. 
repens — L. repens, creeping, 186. 
resin passages, 150; — ducts, 151. 
reproduction — L. reproducere, to reproduce, 3, 119. 
reptilia — L. repo, to creep, 97, 171. 
respiration — L. re, back; spiro, I breathe, 2. 
reticulated — L. reticulum, a little net, 106. 
retractile — L. retractus, withdrawn, no. 
rhabdomes — Gr. rhabdos, a rod, 33. 
rhizoids — Gr. rhiza, a root; eidos, resemblance, 126. 
rhizome — Gr. rhizoma, a root, 140. 
rhizopoda — Gr. rhiza, a root; pous, foot, 169. 

rhomboidea — Gr. rhombos, a magical wheel; eidos, resemblance, 183. 
ribs, 67, 93, 101. 
right auricle, 49. 
rings of growth, 151. 
robinia — Robin, a French botanist, 480. 
rockweed, 127. 

rodentia — L. rodens, gnawing, 172. 
roots, 142. 

rotatoria — L. rota, a wheel, 170. 
rotifera — L. rota, a wheel; fero, I bear, 170. 
rotundifolia — L. rotundus, round; folium, leaf, 184. 
rosa, 185; rosacea, 185. 
rosales — L. rosalis, pertaining to a rose, 179. 



230 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

rostrum — L. rostrum, a beak, 25. 
rubiales — L. ruber, red, 181. 

saccharomyces cereviseae — L. saccharum, sugar; mutes, a fungus; cervesia, 

beer, 117. 
sacrum — L. sacrum, sacred, 76. 
sacral, 101. 
salamander — Gr. salamandra, supposed to be a kind of lizard capable of 

extinguishing fire, 89. 
salivary glands — L. saliva, spittle, 41. 
salpa — Gr. salpe, a kind of stock-fish, 171. 
sand-dollar, 16. 

santalales — L. santalis, a kind of palm-tree, 178. 
sapindales — L. sapo, soap, 178; sapindacese, 185. 
saprophyte — Gr. sapros, putrid; phuton, plant, 121. 
scalariform vessels — L. scala, a ladder; forma, shape, 144. 
scales, 60, 137; scale-bearers, 149 ; — leaves, 149. 
scandens — L. scandens, climbing, 184. 
scansores — L. scando, I climb, 172. 
scaphopoda — Gr. skaphe, a bowl; pons, foot, 171. 
scapula — L. scapula, shoulder-blade, 75, 93, 102. 
schizomycetes — Gr. schizo, I cleave; mukes, a fungus, 173. 
sciatic plexus — L. sciatica, pertaining to the hip; plexus, twisted, 85. 
sclerenchyma — Gr. skier os, hard; enchuma, tissue, 143. 
scotch pine, 147. 

scutellum — L. scutellum, small shield, 164; scutella, 106; scutellate, 106. 
sea-anemone — Gr. anemos, the wind, 9. 
sea-cucumber, 16. 

sea-urchin — L. ericius, a hedgehog, 16. 
secondaries, 105. 
seedlings, 162. 
seeds, 153 — seed-coats, 163. 
segments, 26. 

selachii — Gr. selachos, a cartilaginous fish, 171. 
semi-liquid, 119. 

sensation — L. sentio, I discern by the senses, 2. 
sepals — L. sepes, a hedge or fence, 158. 
septa — L. septum, a partition, 20, 125. 
sessile — L. sessile, in a sitting posture, 157. 
setae — L. seta, a stiff hair, 19. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 



231 



shaft, 106. 

shields, 131. 

shoot, 149. 

shoulder girdle, 75. 

sinus venosus — L. sinus, a curve; vena, a vein, 80, 146. 

siphons — Gr. a tube, 46. 

sisyrinchium — Gr. sisyrinchium, a bulbous plant, 182. 

skeleton — Gr. skellein, to dry, 4; endo — , 67, 73, 91 ; exo — , n. 

skull, 65, 74. 

small fry, 53. 

smilax — Gr. smilax, yew; also a leguminous plant; also bindweed, 181. 

smilacina — Gr. smilax, the yew, smilax, 182. 

smuts, 133. 

snail, 51. 

solanaceas — L. salanum, nightshade, 187. 

somites — Gr. soma, a body, 18. 

sorus — Gr. soros, a heap, 145. 

sow-bug, 33. 

spawn, 53. 

spectabile — L. spectabilis, visible, 183. 

sperm-duct — Gr. sper?na, seed; ductus, a duct, 30, 63, 95: — cells, 132. 

spermaphyta — Gr. sper7na, seed;' phuton, plant, 148, 173, 174. 

spermary — Gr. sperma, seed; of hydra, 7; of perch, 63; of turtle, 95. 

spermatic filament — Gr. spe?-??ia, seed, 132. 

spermatozoa — Gr. spe7'ma, seed; zoon, animal, 23, 9s. 

spermatozoids — Gr. sperma, seed; zoon, an animal; eoidos, resemblance, 132. 

spicules — L. spiculum, a sharp point, 4. 

spider crab, 33. 

spike, 151. 

spinal — L. spina, the spine; — cord, 66; — column, 66; — nerve, 66. 

spine, 1 1 ; neural — , 67. 

spiracle — L. spiro, I breathe, 37. 

spiranthes — L. spira, a coil or spire, 183. 

spirogyra quinina — Gr. speira, a coil; guros, a circle; N. L. quinine, 121. 

spleen— L. splen, the milt or spleen, 63, 79, 94. 

sponge — L. spongia, 2. sponge, 4. 

sponge flesh, 4. 

spongia — L. spongia, a sponge, 169. 

spongilla — L. a little sponge, 4, 169. 

spore — Gr. spora, a seed, 141, 152. 



232 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

sporangia — Gr. spora, seed; anggos, a vessel, 145, 152. 
sporophore — Gr. spora, a seed; phoros, bearing, 141; swarm spore, 127. 
sporophylla — Gr. spora, a seed; phullon, leaf, 144. 
sprout-chains, 119. 
squid, 51. 

stamens — L. sto, I stand, 152, 159. 
starch grains, 123. 
star-fish, 10. 
stem, 106, 129. 

stellata — L. stella, a star, 182. 
sterile leaves, 130. 

sternum — Gr. stertton, the breast bone, 75. 
sternite — Gr. sternon, breast bone, 26. 
stigma — Gr. stizo, I mark with a point, 1 60. 
stipe — L. stipes, a stock, 142. 
stoma — Gr. stoma, a mouth, 136. 
stomach, 14, 31, 41, 50, 62, 78, 86, 94. 
stonewort, 128. 
striae — L. stria, a. furrow, 60. 
striated muscle — L. stria, a furrow, 40. 
stricta — L. strictus, drawn together, 1 84. 
style — L. stylus, a stake, 160. 
subclavian — L. sub, under; clavis, a key, 96. 
superior umbilicus — L. inftrior, higher; umbilicus, navel, 106. 
sub-mucosa — L. sub, under; mucus, slimy, 86. 

sub-oesophageal ganglion — Gr. esophagus, gullet; gagglion, tumor, 32. 
sub-Opercle — L. sub, under; operculum, a lid, 58. 
sub-orbital — L. sub, under; or bis, circle, 56. 
supporting lamellae, 8. 

supra-cesophageal ganglion — L. supra, on the upper side, 32. (See oesopha- 
gus and ga?iglion.) 
suture — L. sutura, a seam. 
swimmerets, 26. 

symmetry — L. symmetria, symmetrical, together and measure, 18. 
symplocarpus — Gr. sumploke, a connection; karpos, fruit, 182. 
synapta — Gr. sun, together; apto, I connect, 170. 
systemic arch, 81. 

tactile — L. tactilis, that may be touched, 27. 
tapeworm, 23. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 233 

tap-root, 165; multiple — , 165. 

taraxicum — Gr. taraxis, a disorder of the bowels, 187. 

tarsus — Gr. tarsos, the sole of the foot, 37, 76, 94; — tarso-meta- tarsus, 103. 

teleostei — Gr. teleos, perfect; osteon, bone, 171. 

telson — Gr. telson, the end, 25. 

tendon — L. tendo, I stretch, 78. 

tentacles — L. tento, I touch; tentacular processes, 46; terminal — , 13. 

tergite — L. tergum, the back, 26. 

terminal cell, 130. 

tertiaries — L. tertius, three, 105. 

tethyodea, 171. 

teeth, 44. 

thaliacea — G. thaleia, blooming (with phosphorescence), 171. 

thallus — Gr. thallus, a shoot, 127. 

thallophyta — Gr. thallus, a shoot; phuton, a plant, 173. 

thoracic — Gr. thorax, the chest; — region; — appendages, 25, 26. 

thumb, 76. 

tibia — L. tibia, a pipe, 36, 94; tibio-tarsus, 103; tibio-fibula, 103. 

tilia — L. tilia, the linden, 184; — tiliaceae, 184. 

tinctoria — L. tinctor, a dyer, 186. 

tissue — Fr. tissu, woven, 22, 87, 136, 143, 156. 

tongue, 15. 

topography — Gr. topos, region; grapho, I grave, 10. 

torula — L. torulus, a tuft of hair, 119. 

tracheae — Gr. tracheia, windpipe, 40, 94. 

tradescantia — Tradescant, gardener to Charles I. of England, 182. 

trichina — Gr. thrix, hair, 23, 170. 

trichome — Gr. thrix, hair, 161. 

trifolium — L. tres, three; folium, a leaf, 186. 

trigeminal — L. Ires, three; gemini, twins; — nerve, 83. 

trillium recurvation — L. tres, three; recurvatum, bent backward, 182. 

triphyllum — L. tres, three; Gr. phullon, leaf, 182. 

trivium — L. tres, three; via, the way, II. 

triticum vulgare — L. triticum, wheat; vulgaris, common, 162. 

trochanter — Gr. trechein, run, 36. 

trochlear — L. trochlea, a pulley, 83. 

trunk, 71. 

tube-feet, 12. 

tuberosa — L. tuber, a small root, 183. 

tunicata — L. tunica, a tunic, or close fitting shirt, 171. 



234 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 

turtle, 90. 

tympanum — L. tympanum, a drum, 38, 72; — cavity, 100, 105. 

typhlosole — Gr. tuphlos, blind : solen, tube, 22. 

ulmus — ulmus, the elm, 184. 

ulmaceae — L. u/mus, elm, 184. 

ulna — L. ulna, the elbow, 93, 102. 

ulnare — L. ulna, the elbow, 102. 

umbellales — L. u??ibella, a parasol, 179. 

umbones — L. umbo, the boss of a shield, 43. 

unipolar nerve-cell, 88. 

unio plicata — L. unus, one; plicatus, folded, 42. 

unstriated muscle-fibre, 40. 

ureter — Gr. otireo, I make water, 79. 

urinary bladder — L. urina, urine, 64; — tubules, 87. 

urocyst — Gr. our on, urine; kustis, a bladder, 80. 

urostyle — Gr. our a, the tail; stulos, column, 74. 

urticales — L. urtica, a nettle, 177. 

vacuoles — L. vacuus, empty, 2. 

valves, 43. 

vane, 106. 

vaucheria sesilis — Vaucher, a botanist of Geneva; L. sessile, having a sitting 

posture, 125, 126. 
veins — L. vena, a blood vessel, 64, 77, 81, 96, 97, 142, 157, 165. 
venation — L. vena, vein, 163. 

venous sinus — L. vena, a blood vessel; sinus, 3. curve, 64, 80. 
ventral — L. venter, belly, 18; — fins, 55; — fissure, 88; — nerve-chain, 22; 

— margin, 43; — horns, 88; — vessel, 22. 
ventricle — L. venter, the belly or a small cavity, 48, 80. 
vegetative notches, 138. 
vermes — L. vermis, a worm, 23, 170. 
versicolor — L. versocolor, that changes its color, 182. 
vertebra — L. verto,! turn, 67; vertebral column, 67, 73, 92; cervical — , 93; 

dorsal — , 93, 100, 101, no. 
vertebrata — L. vertebra, a joint, 113, 171. 
vessels, 144; lateral — , 21. 
vibrissas — L. vibro, I shake, 109. 
villi — L. hairs, 87. 
violaceae — L. viola, the violet, 183; viola, 183, 184. 



INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 235 

virginica, pertaining to Virginia, 182, 187; virginiana, 185. 
vitis — L. vitis, a vine, 184. 
volvox — L. volvo, I roll, 127. 
vomer — L. vomer, a plowshare, 57. 
vorticella — L. vortex, a whirl, 169. 

water mould, 127. 

web, 73. 

wheat rusts, 133. 

whorls, 129. 

wings, of grasshopper, 37; of pigeon, 105; of liverwort, 105, 135. 

xylem — Gr. xulon, wood, 150, 158. 

yeast, 117. 

zea mays — Gr. zeia, corn; mays, Indian name, 162. 
zoospore — Gr. zoon, an animal; spora, seed, 126. 
zodsporeae — Gr. zoon, an animal; spora, seed, 174. 
zygophyta — Gr. zugon, a yoke ; phuton, a plant, 1 24, 1 74. 
zygospores — Gr. zugon, a yoke; spora, seed, 123. 







BBSS! B|&k9S h»«| 




